In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The opening verse takes the existence of God as a given. It does not address questions about God’s origin or nature; rather, God is understood to be the absolute existence from which everything begins. Already at the beginning of the account of Creation, heaven and earth appear as distinct entities and as a framework for all of creation, as detailed in the rest of the chapter.

The earth was unformed and empty [ tohu vavohu ]. The earth was completely lacking any structure or order. The heavens too were unformed and empty, but the verse initially focuses on the earth, its structure and content. Although these two terms appear together in other places in the Bible, the precise meaning of the word vohu is difficult to ascertain; it is even uncertain whether vohu refers to a distinct concept. And darkness was upon the face of the deep. The deep may refer to deep waters, or to the unstructured universe, that existed at the time. At this early stage of Creation, nothing had yet to receive definite shape; nothing had been revealed. Therefore, the darkness upon the face of the deep was merely the absence of the light that was about to be created. Some commentaries maintain that the darkness was not the absence of light, but an entity in itself, based on the verse “I form the light, and create darkness.” And the spirit of God hovered over the surface of the water. Water is the first actual substance mentioned in the Torah, as the heaven and the earth are not substances but general entities or zones. The verse does not discuss the creation of the primeval substance that served as the foundation for all of existence. In any case, the Torah indicates that God’s power, or will, exists in some form in this reality. God is not located within these entities, and He certainly is not to be identified with them; rather, He hovers close by while remaining separate from them.

The process of Creation begins: God said: Let there be light, and there was light. It is difficult to understand the meaning or significance of the phrase “God said.” The most that can be understood from this cryptic description is that God transmitted a kind of message that there should be light, and His instruction came to pass. Light was the first creation to emerge from tohu vavohu . It was unlike any form of light known to mankind; it did not emanate from a prior source. Perhaps it was not even a physical light, but a unique phenomenon.

God saw the light that it was good. As soon as the light emerged from the unformed universe, God evaluated it and distinguished between good and bad. And God divided between the light and the darkness. Once light was created and discerned as good, the next phase of its creation began, namely, the stage of separation, which established the light as a clearly defined entity. The act of discerning and separating between good and bad would continue till the end of time and manifest itself also in human history and civilization.

God called the light day. From the inception of the concepts of light and day, there was some measure of synonymy between them. Nevertheless, they are clearly and independently defined. Aside from day’s association with daylight, the day denotes a specific period of time. At this early stage of the Creation, with the formation of light comes the establishment of time. Until this point, the universe was in a raw state, completely unstructured and undefined; even space and time were not yet defined. These concepts came into being when God willed it. And to the darkness He called night. Darkness as well is removed from its previous status as a description of space alone and placed in a framework of time. The concepts of day and night as they appear in this verse express what the Sages called the order of time, in other words, the notions of before and after, relative concepts that did not apply when the earth was still unformed and empty. The verse introduces additional new concepts: It was evening and it was morning, one day. The essence of time is comprised of evening, which is related to darkness and night, and morning, which is related to light and day. After the passage of evening and morning, one day comes to an end. Therefore, the term “day,” which previously referred specifically to the hours of light and was even identified with light, now receives an additional meaning: A unit of time that includes both the hours of light and darkness. The verse refers to this first day of Creation as “one day” instead of the first day, as the day itself is a distinct entity. In other words, the existence of one day did not indicate the existence of a second. The acts of creation that followed occurred spontaneously. Consequently, the next day may be considered the second day only in the sense that there was already one day preceding it; its existence did not derive from the existence of the first day. The creation of light, therefore, was unique, as its appearance allowed for the basic arrangement of space and time.

God said: Let there be a firmament in the midst of the water. This was not a geographical division, but a metaphysical one. And let it divide between water and water. The breaking up of the all-encompassing primordial waters was vital to the continuation of Creation. These waters would be confined and transformed into two separate entities, with the firmament separating them from one another.

God made the firmament and divided between the water that was under the firmament and the water that was above the firmament; and it was so. This division served to separate between the material and spiritual planes. From this point forward, physical matter and spirit became distinguishable from one another. They would now exist separately, in some ways interconnected but essentially independent from one another.

God called the firmament heavens [ shamayim ]. Some expound the word shamayim as sham mayim , meaning “water is there.” However, it is more likely that shamayim is the double form of sham , there there, meaning that it is located beyond. The second day of Creation also brought with it an element of measurement not with regard to space but with regard to time: It was evening and it was morning, a second day. On this day, the universe achieved a new structure. Although it did not yet resemble the universe as we know it, it now contained a hierarchical structure in addition to light.

God said: Let the water under the heavens be gathered. This refers to the physical water under the firmament, similar to the water of today. The lower waters were called upon to be gathered to one place, and let the dry land appear. When the water was collected in one place, the dry land underneath would be exposed. And it was so.

God called the dry land earth. It should not be inferred from these verses that the dry land already existed as a distinct entity, albeit under water. Rather, it seems more likely that just as the light burst forth from within the darkness, so too the dry land was initially incorporated within the water, as it were. Only on the third day did the land dry, consolidate, and become a separate entity that would now be called earth. And the gathering of the waters He called seas. The place in which the waters gathered would become a distinct entity. This includes not only actual seas, but also discrete bodies of water, such as lakes of any size. Even the basin in the Temple, which King Solomon fashioned so the priests could wash their hands and feet, is known as a sea. From this point forward, the earth and the sea would be the two largest entities in the world. And God saw that it was good. Unlike the mystifying creation of the first day, or the traumatic separation of the second, the creations of the third day were already the beginnings of the fully formed universe. The earth and the seas were given their own space and unique characteristics that would enable the flourishing of those creatures that would inhabit each of them respectively. The existence of the earth and the seas was possible only because they had been separated from each other. This combination of dry land and water, and their subsequent division, was seen by God as good.

From an outsider’s perspective, the exposure of dry land, with its tall mountains, plains, and ravines, would have seemed a most dramatic event. However, on the very same day there was another creation, even more significant for humanity: God said: Let the earth sprout grasses. The earth was commanded to bring forth various types of vegetation. If until now the Torah dealt with metaphysics and physics, the third day introduced the concept of biology. The novelty of this creation was not in the actual growth or spread of the grass; such processes occur even in a puddle of water or a mound of earth. Rather, the sprouting of the grass was unique in that it contained within it a novelty known in classical philosophy as the vegetative soul. The grass was the basis for all higher life forms that would be created later, not only because the latter depend upon vegetation in order to survive, but because they are themselves more advanced forms of things that grow. The creation of biology includes not only growth but also proliferation: Vegetation yielding seed, and fruit tree bearing fruit in its kind, in which there is its seed, upon the earth. The definition of the biological system according to a process in which a cell or group of cells start to grow, and indeed to propagate, is not new. Although this phenomenon of growth and reproduction runs counter to all considerations of physics, as it violates the laws of entropy, it is nevertheless the very definition of life. And it was so.

The earth produced grasses, vegetation yielding seed in its kind, and a tree bearing fruit in which there was its seed in its kind. The Torah does not classify the various species of vegetation; it does not even provide the criteria for categorizing them. The verse instead emphasizes that each of these creations was a species to itself; the creation of plant life was a deliberate, ordered process. And God saw that it was good. In addition to being the day on which the dry land was exposed, the third day was the day on which life was first brought forth. The significance of the emergence of life on the third day is expressed in the double appearance of the phrase “it was good” (see verse 10). Before the third day, the universe consisted only of inanimate entities; on the third day life began, even if it was not yet intelligent. Although vegetation does not share all the characteristics of more complex life forms, it possesses the foundation and source of life, namely, the ability to tend to its own survival, to grow, and to multiply.

It was evening and it was morning, a third day.

God said: Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens. From this point objects would exist that would generate and emit light. These were distinct from light itself, which was created on the first day. The addition on the fourth day of entities responsible for the light was part of the continued structuring and ordering of the universe. These lights would exist to distinguish between the day and the night. The division between day and night was significant not only from a celestial perspective, but also in establishing the rhythm of time. The function of the lights is first and foremost to measure time and divide it into segments. Specifically, let them be for signs, phenomena which occur in heaven and on earth, and for seasons, and for days and years.

Let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth; and it was so.

God made the two great lights, as they appear today: the greater light, the sun, to rule the day, and the lesser light, the moon, to rule the night, and the stars.

God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth

and to rule during the day and during the night. The sun and moon appear to human beings as rulers over day and night, as it is impossible for one to fail to notice the presence of the sun or its absence, and it is likewise impossible to miss the appearance or disappearance of the moon. And these lights also serve to divide between the light and the darkness. Although earlier verses already referred to day and night, and to morning and evening, and connected them to light and darkness, these entities were not completely defined until now. And God saw that it was good.

It was evening and it was morning, a fourth day.

From vegetation and the heavenly bodies, the verse addresses the creation of animals: God said: Let the water swarm with swarms [ sheretz ] of living creatures [ nefesh ĥaya ]. These creatures would not grow and develop blindly, like vegetation, but would have the ability to move and some measure of will. The word sheretz may allude to wanting, retziya , or running, ritza . Note that the first appearance of the phrase nefesh ĥaya is in connection with aquatic creatures; it appears again only later with regard to land animals. Perhaps this is because water is the first source for creation and for the continued existence of life. And let birds fly above the earth on the face of the firmament of the heavens.

God created the great serpents [ taninim ]. In several places in the Bible, the tanin is identified with the livyatan or some creature resembling it. In modern Hebrew, livyatan refers to a whale while tanin refers to an alligator, but these are not their biblical meanings. Rather, the tanin and livyatan are mysterious aquatic creatures that were created in the water and whose relationship to our world is unclear. In several places in the Bible they are depicted as enormously powerful monsters, which at times do not accept the authority even of God. And every living creature that crawls, with which the water swarmed in their kinds. The variety of living creatures ranges from tiny fish that fill rivers, lakes, and streams to powerful sharks, and even to the great sea monsters, whose existence borders on the abstract and which may possess some form of intelligence. And every winged bird in its kind, a myriad of species. And God saw that it was good.

God blessed them, saying: Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the water in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth. Vegetation propagates automatically; it does not require action on its own part to multiply. By contrast, the reproductive processes of animals, whether flying, aquatic, or amphibious, involve the search for a mate. Consequently, they required a special blessing that would instill within them the active drive to be fruitful and multiply.

It was evening and it was morning, a fifth day.

Up to this point, God had created aquatic creatures and birds, the latter being either more advanced forms of sea life or creatures formed from swamps, a combination of land and sea. On the sixth day, God created land creatures: God said: Let the earth produce living creatures in its kind, animals of many types, not just domesticated ones, and crawling creatures. This is not meant as a zoological definition, but as a description of animal life from a human perspective. That is to say, the term “crawling creatures” refers to the small animals that swarm on the ground, such as mice and snakes. And let the earth produce beasts of the earth in its kind. The Torah distinguishes between animals [ behema ] and beasts [ ĥaya ]. Some suggest that ĥaya refers to predatory animals, whereas behema refers to herbivores. And it was so.

God made the beasts of the earth in its kind, and the animals in its kind, and every creature that crawls upon the ground in its kind; and God saw that it was good.

This verse is the climax of the entire account of Creation: God said: Let Us make Man in Our image, in Our likeness. Although in a physiological sense man is very similar to other living creatures, he is nevertheless a category of being to himself. Unlike other creations, man was fashioned in the image of God, not in terms of his appearance, but in terms of his essence. Aside from man’s superior intelligence, this likeness is expressed principally in man’s freedom to choose. This quality is unique to man and God. The rest of creation moves within its respective circles, always subject to a long chain of cause and effect. Humans are not bound by these chains. And let them dominate over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the animals, and over all the earth, meaning over the inanimate substances, and over every crawling creature that crawls upon the earth.

God created man in His own image, granting him freedom and the capacity to expand and alter his surroundings; in the image of God He created him. The verse notes: Male and female He created them. The Torah will later elaborate on this statement. In theory, man could have been created as one, just as God is one. The fact that man was created male and female indicates that mankind is part of the world’s system of living creatures. The Torah’s emphasis on this fact indicates that it does not refer to man as an individual, but as a species, whose beginnings are described in this verse. On the other hand, although the other creatures were also created male and female, the Torah mentions the creation of male and female counterparts only with regard to mankind. This serves to emphasize that the difference between man and woman is not merely biological, but fundamental as well.

God blessed them; and God also said to them: Be fruitful, and multiply. Since the propagation of mankind, unlike that of plants, requires a conscious reproductive act, this was the first command addressed to man as a subject with free will. The second commandment is: And fill the earth. It is not enough for man to be fruitful and multiply. He must also spread out across the entire planet, settle it, and subdue it. Of course this does not negate the presence of other creatures on the earth. Nevertheless, man has a special obligation to populate the world, to cultivate and tame it. And finally, you must rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over every living creature that crawls upon the earth.

God said: Behold, I have given you, for now at least, all vegetation yielding seed that is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in which there is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for food. You may take your sustenance from all types of plants, herbs, vegetables, and fruit, as you see fit.

And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the heavens, and to everything that crawls upon the earth, in which there is a living soul, I have given all green vegetation for food. And it was so. It is possible that when all life forms were first created, they were herbivorous. However, perhaps there was no prohibition against receiving sustenance from living creatures or their carcasses, only against killing living creatures. It is permitted for man and beast to derive their sustenance from vegetation, because they each possess an animate soul, making them superior to plants.

God saw everything that He had made, in its entirety, from light to man, and, behold, it was very good. It was evening and it was morning, the sixth day.

The heavens and the earth and their entire host, the abundance of creatures contained within them, with all their abilities and roles, were completed.

God completed on the seventh day His works that He had made on the previous six days; He rested on the seventh day from all His works that He had made. Concluded is the process in which new, unique creations were formed on each day. From this point forward, the world will continue its existence according to the order that has been determined for it.

Due to the unique nature of the Sabbath, God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it with additional holiness; because on it He rested from all His works that God created to make.

This is the legacy of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, on the day that the Lord God made earth and heaven.

At this stage the world was still incomplete, as no shrub of the field was yet in the earth, and no vegetation of the field had yet sprouted; because the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth. Although rain is a part of the natural order of the world, it was not mentioned in the previous chapter alongside the formation of the seas, dry land, or vegetation. Since it had not yet rained, the plants were unable to fully grow. The Sages teach that the plants initially only barely emerged from the ground. When the first man was created, he prayed for them, and the first rains came, causing the plants to sprout and grow. And there was no man to till the ground. People can work the land even when there is no rainfall, by drawing water from elsewhere. Without man, however, the land remained unworked.

A mist would rise from the earth, and water the entire surface of the ground. The essence of rain already existed, but the complete hydrological cycle was not yet in place. The Torah here describes a primordial water cycle: Mist would rise from the earth, condense, and fall to water the ground.

The creation of vegetation, which occurred on the third day of Creation, will soon be described in detail. But first the Torah elaborates on the creation and actions of a far more important entity, man, whose formation was previously depicted only in general terms: The Lord God formed man of dust from the ground. Unlike the other created beings, which were fashioned in one step, God created man in stages: First he was a lump of earth, a purely physical entity known by the Sages as a golem . And He then breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, giving life to this inanimate object. Man became a living creature. The soul of man is living not only in the sense that it is not dead, but also in that it contains a special vitality: It is a speaking soul. The breath of life within man is not just an abstract entity or form of sanctity concealed inside him; rather, it radiates outward from within him.

As part of the Creation process, the Lord God planted a garden, in the place known as Eden to the east . Although Eden refers to a place, the word itself means pleasure. The ambiguity and mystery regarding this location is further accentuated by the fact that the verse describes it as located eastward without offering any point of reference. This place is a lost world outside the realm of our current experience. He placed there the man whom He had formed.

The Lord God grew from the ground in the Garden of Eden every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, and the tree of life, which will be discussed later, in the midst of the garden, in the center, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

A river emerged from Eden to water the garden; and from there it, the river, would part and would become four headwaters.

The name of the one is Pishon; it is that which encircles the entire land of Havila, where the gold is found. Pishon is generally identified with the Nile.

The gold in the deposits of that land is of particularly good quality; there is also bdellium and the onyx stone.

The name of the second river is Gihon; it is that which encircles the entire land of Kush. It is possible that Kush is modern-day Ethiopia. Some identify Kush as the mountain range known today as the Hindu Kush, which stretches between modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The name of the third river is Tigris; it is that which goes east of Ashur. The Tigris is an immense river in Mesopotamia, known even today by this name. And the fourth river is Euphrates. There is no need for the verse to elaborate on the location of the Euphrates, as throughout virtually the entire Bible, whenever a verse mentions a river without further specification, it refers to the Euphrates. This river serves as the border between the lands of the Middle East and the surrounding lands. This is also the meaning of the expression “beyond the river,” which appears throughout the Bible and rabbinic literature, as well as in archaeological findings.

The Lord God took the man, and placed him in the Garden of Eden to cultivate it and to keep it. In contrast to the other creations scattered throughout the garden, the man was placed there for a particular purpose, namely, to cultivate the ground and to keep it. Just as in the previous chapter man was commanded to rule over the entire world, here man is given responsibility over a part of this otherworldly place. The world was not yet functioning in its fixed manner; perhaps rain never fell in the Garden of Eden, which instead drew all its sustenance from the river flowing through it and required the care of man. Consequently, it was of great importance for the man to cultivate the garden and to protect it from harm.

The Lord God commanded the man, saying: From every tree of the garden you may eat, and from them you shall draw your sustenance.

But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, you shall not eat; for on the day that you eat of it you shall die. If you eat from this tree, you will die.

The Lord God said: It is not good that the man shall be alone. All living creatures were created male and female, and they were meant to multiply. Only man was created without a mate. Is one to conclude, then, that man was never meant to procreate? Perhaps God created man in His image, with intelligence and free will, as His parallel in this world. If so, just as God is alone above, man was likewise alone below, and this is how he was meant to fulfill his duties. To rule out this understanding, the Torah states that it is not good, neither for man himself nor for the world, for him to be alone. God continued: Therefore, I will make for him a helper alongside him, someone who completes him. Man requires a partnership with another being; this partnership would signify the beginning of humanity.

To that end, the Lord God formed from the ground every beast of the field and every bird of the heavens and brought them to the man, master of creation below, to see what he would call it. Whatever the man would call every living creature, that was its name.

The man called names for every animal, and for the birds of the heavens and for the beasts of the field; but after all the animals passed before him to receive their names, it became apparent that for Adam, he did not find a helper to be alongside him; there was no other human being. In a world without nomenclature, each entity was completely unique and uncategorized. The ability to categorize similar creatures into groups and species and apply names to them is contingent on the cognitive abilities of association. Before he began to use these faculties, it is possible that Adam was unaware that he was alone. He lived in a world without classification and considered himself to be just another one of a myriad of creatures. Once Adam began to categorize the types of vegetation and male and female animals, he became acutely aware of his aloneness, as he realized that none of the individual creatures he encountered was suitable for him.

The Lord God cast a deep sleep upon the man, and he slept; He took one of his sides [ tzalotav ]. Although many commentaries interpret the word tzela as rib, it seems more likely tzela refers to a whole side of the body. If so, one must conclude that the man was originally created with a double body, one half of which was separated from him now. And God closed with flesh in its place, where He had removed this side.

The Lord God built the side that He took from the man into a woman, whose form differed from that of a man, and brought her to the man after he awakened.

Before the man fell into a deep sleep the woman was part of him. Only at this point, the man said: This time, this particular entity, is a bone from my bones, and flesh from my flesh. On the one hand, the man realized that the woman was a part of his original composition; on the other hand, he knew that she was a stranger to him. What was once a single being was now divided into two separate entities that were capable of relating to one another. This shall be called woman [ isha ], because this was taken from man [ ish ]. The linguistic similarity between the terms representing man and woman, ish and isha , attests to the resemblance between them.

Since man and woman were not created as separate beings, their relationship is unique among creations. Unlike the males and females of the animal world, which have always been separate entities that develop independently, man and woman were once a single person. This unique status is what creates the special bond of love between a man and a woman and gives meaning to the institution of marriage. Therefore, a man shall leave his father and his mother, and he shall cleave to his wife, and they shall become one flesh. Initially, the strongest bond between members of a family is the bond between a child and his parents. Nevertheless, the bond between husband and wife surpasses even the bond between a person and the family of his childhood. One’s bond with one’s parents certainly remains even after marrying, but it grows weaker.

The verse provides some background for events that will be described below: They were both naked, the man and his wife, and they were not ashamed. Like the other living creatures, the man and his wife did not need clothing in the Garden of Eden. As part of the natural world, humanity was originally bare and exposed.

The serpent was more cunning than any beast of the field that the Lord God had made. The serpent was clever; it possessed intelligence. Although the word “cunning” [ arum ] usually has negative connotations in modern Hebrew, in the Bible it is a neutral term. Furthermore, this primeval serpent was not the same as the diminished snake we know today, but a wholly intelligent creature. He said to the woman: Did God actually say: You shall not eat of any tree of the garden? Perhaps the serpent chose to address the woman because God did not speak directly to her but to the man, reasoning that since she had heard of the prohibition only through an intermediary, it would be easier to incite and deceive her. Although when God forbade man from partaking of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil the woman was still a part of him, one must conclude that only the male side heard the command directly from God.

The woman said to the serpent: From the fruit of the trees of the garden we may eat. God did not prohibit us from eating the fruit of the garden.

But from the fruit of the tree that is in the midst, the middle, of the garden, God said: You shall not eat of it, nor shall you touch it, lest you die. This is a dangerous tree. It is prohibited for us to eat from this tree, or even to touch it, as death resides within it.

In response to this claim, the serpent said to the woman: You will not die. There is no need for you to fear that you might die, as the tree of the knowledge of good and evil does not cause death. The serpent could speak to the woman about this matter with the confidence of being a reliable source, because man was created last, and consequently all the other creatures had more life experience than he had.

The serpent now revealed the ostensible motivation for the divine prohibition: For God knows that on the day you eat from it, then your eyes shall be opened, and you shall be as God, knowers of good and evil. God does not want you to eat from this tree, not because it is dangerous, but because by consuming it you will be raised to a higher level. God seeks to prevent you from acquiring the knowledge of good and evil that He possesses.

The woman saw that the tree was good for eating. The woman began to submit to temptation, thus marking the beginning of the sin. Of course the root of this sin preceded its execution; it was based on the willingness to even consider the possibility of violating a divine command. This did not occur to the woman on her own; it was the serpent who presented her with the option of defiance. Perhaps before the serpent spoke to her she was afraid of the tree and refrained from gazing at it or from reflecting on its nature and the effect of its fruit. But after it spoke to her she saw that the tree was as good as all the others, and that it was an enticement to the eyes, and that the tree was attractive to apprehend. There was something intriguing about this tree that made one desire to approach and understand it. She took from its fruit and ate; she also gave to her husband with her, and he ate. In the manner of a good wife who loves her husband, she immediately shared her great discovery with him.

The eyes of both of them were opened, and they knew that they were naked. Obviously, the man and woman were always aware of their nakedness. Indeed, their nakedness is already mentioned, as a matter of fact, at the end of the previous chapter. However, at first they were not ashamed of their naked state, just as people are not embarrassed to expose their noses or their eyes. Like the animals, all parts of their bodies were considered equal in their eyes. Partaking of the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil injected something new into their consciousness: A separation of the various forms of good, namely, aesthetics, pleasure, utility, and morality. This new awareness does not mean that until this point they were unaware of their sexuality. However, before eating of the fruit of the tree, they engaged in the sexual act as animals do, with complete innocence and unselfconsciousness. Now they became aware of the unique nature of human sexuality, and into their world was introduced a new sort of inclination. Unlike the sexual drive of animals, which is part of their biological compulsion and limited by objective factors of need and satiation, the human sexual urge is based on a potentially boundless erotic desire. The man and woman were suddenly faced with their ability to choose to what extent to indulge these newly discovered inclinations, and thus found themselves before a gaping chasm. Consequently, they sewed fig leaves, and made themselves loincloths. Since their nakedness was no longer a neutral state but a source of provocation and temptation, it was not to be publicly displayed; they therefore hurried to cover themselves.

It is difficult to appreciate the severity of the sin of the first man, who violated the sole command God had imposed upon him. From this point forward, humanity’s penchant for sinning would fall to the greatest depths. Perhaps the first man foresaw this and recoiled. It is possible that the man and woman were perplexed, even dazed and intoxicated, by the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. They heard the voice of the Lord God as though it were moving in the garden with the day breeze. The Divine Presence was particularly manifest in the Garden of Eden. The man and his wife hid from the presence of the Lord God among the trees of the garden. Before sinning, the man and his wife were like young children, who do only what they are supposed to do and are therefore not ashamed of their actions. For the first time, they sensed that they had acted improperly and felt ashamed and sought to hide.

The Lord God called to the man, and said to him: Where are you? This question is, of course, not designed to elicit information. It is a summons: Where are you? Stand before Me!

He, the man, apologized and said: I heard Your voice in the garden, and I was afraid because I was naked, and I hid. I am not standing in the open, because I am confused and ashamed. I hid because I did not want to be seen in my nakedness.

He, God, said: Who told you that you were naked, that there is something wrong with your nakedness? You were naked beforehand as well, and yet you were not ashamed. Clearly, God was not referring to man’s physical nakedness, as even an animal could have discerned this. Did you eat from the tree from which I commanded you not to eat? This was also a rhetorical question, meant to test the man’s response.

Despite all he had learned about good and evil, the man had not yet learned how to lie. His response was therefore not a distortion of reality. However, it was also not a direct response. Having internalized the serpent’s cunning, the man did not respond: Yes, or: I sinned. Rather, the man said: The woman whom You gave to be with me, she gave me from the tree, and I ate. You created a woman for me, and she gave me the fruit. By referring to his wife as the woman whom God gave to be with him, the man shirked responsibility for his actions and sought to shift the blame onto her and onto God.

The Lord God said to the woman: What is this you have done? Why did you consume the fruit, and why did you give it to your husband? The woman said: The serpent enticed me, and I ate. She also absolved herself of responsibility, although her response was indeed very close to the truth. The woman claimed that she herself would never have conceived of such a deed. Rather, another entity, the serpent, persuaded her with its crafty ways to eat from the fruit. Nevertheless, the woman did not seek to blame God.

The Lord God said to the serpent. God did not ask the serpent why it behaved as it did, because unlike the man and his wife, the serpent had no justification for its actions. It acted out of a profound wickedness whose purpose was to break open the depths of evil, or simply for its amusement. Even if the serpent did not intend to bring about the tremendous upheaval in the world that resulted from its actions or the expulsion from the Garden of Eden, the serpent’s words stemmed from the malicious thought: Perhaps we should do the very opposite of God’s wishes. God therefore cursed the serpent: Because you did this, cursed are you from among all the animals, and from all the beasts of the field; upon your belly shall you go, and dust shall you eat all the days of your life. It can be inferred from the verse that the serpent previously walked on legs.

God declared an additional punishment: I will place enmity between you and the woman, and between your descendants and her descendants. If, for whatever reason, you sought to establish a connection with the woman, your efforts will be unsuccessful. Henceforth, an irrational hatred will prevail between you and the woman, and between your descendants and hers. This hatred will be expressed by the fact that he shall strike your head, and you shall strike his heel.

To the woman He said. The curses placed upon the woman distinguish the female human from the females of the animal kingdom: I will increase your suffering; your life will involve much pain. Some explain this as a reference to the menstrual cycle, which has no counterpart in most animals and which is unpleasant and sometimes even painful. And I will increase the difficulty of your pregnancy. Human pregnancy is not as simple or straightforward as that of other creatures. This is partly due to human psychology and partly due to physiology. The same applies to childbirth: In pain you shall give birth to children. And furthermore, your desire shall be for your husband. Since you initiated this action, that is, you were proactive in tempting your husband and attempting to create a new reality, you will henceforth yearn for your husband. Although this is not an adverse state of affairs, it involves a measure of passivity on the woman’s part. And he shall rule over you, not necessarily in terms of a social order, but in the context of sexual relations. The woman was cursed that man and woman would no longer be equal partners. Since the woman wanted to know evil, she would experience suffering; since she sought to lead her husband, she would now be led by him.

And to Adam He said: Because you heeded the voice of your wife, and ate from the tree that I commanded you, saying: You shall not eat from it, your sin is more severe, as you heeded the voice of your wife despite hearing the prohibition directly from Me. Therefore, cursed is the ground on your account. No longer will the ground be like the fertile soil of the Garden of Eden, which gave forth produce without any toil on your part, and which you only had to protect from damage. From now on, mankind’s relationship with the ground will be different: In suffering, through toil, shall you eat of it all the days of your life.

And unlike in the Garden of Eden, if you wait for the ground to produce its fruit spontaneously, then thorns and thistles shall it grow for you; and you shall eat the vegetation of the field, which will not always be edible in its natural state.

In order for the vegetation of the field to be fit for consumption, you will have to toil over its growth. You will no longer be able to consume all produce in its natural state. Rather, by the sweat of your brow shall you eat bread. Until now you have lived in a world in which everything was prepared for you. Henceforth, you will have to exert great effort to produce your food, until you return to the ground; for from it were you taken. Ultimately, you will die. For you are dust, and to dust shall you return.

The man called the name of his wife Eve [Ĥavva]. Before the man imagined that other people would inhabit the earth, there was no reason for him to give his wife a name. He was man and she was woman, and that was sufficient. After learning of their mortality and that the woman would give birth to other people who would replace them, he gave her a name. He chose this name because she was the mother of all living [ ĥai ]. There is much affection and love in the selection of this particular name. Adam could have chosen many other names; he could even have given her a name that reflected some resentment toward her. Despite everything, he called her Ĥavva, as if to say to her: From you life will come to the world.

The Lord God made for Adam and for his wife hide tunics and clothed them. God took into account the shame and vulnerability that Adam and Eve felt in the wake of their sin. He wished to assist them on their new path, so He clothed them.

The Lord God said: Behold, the man has become as one of us, like one of the heavenly beings, as he has the capacity to know good and evil. Man no longer acts solely based on instinct or what he is told, but in accordance with his own free will. And now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also from the tree of life, and eat, and live forever. Although the tree of life was in the garden the entire time, it seems that it did not attract the attention of Adam or Eve. Unlike the enticing tree of the knowledge of good and evil, whose fruits were particularly desirable, perhaps the tree of life was a simple tree whose fruit was unimpressive. However, following man’s recent dramatic awareness of his mortality, he might have sought ways to avoid death. It is possible that no prohibition or threat would prevent him from making use of that which could grant him eternal life.

Therefore, the Lord God sent him out from the Garden of Eden, to cultivate the ground from which he was taken. Man returned to the unremarkable land outside the Garden of Eden.

The man was not sent from the garden in a leisurely manner; rather, He, God, banished the man; He stationed the cherubs, a type of angel, east [ kedem ] of the Garden of Eden. Perhaps the entrance to the garden was on its eastern side, as was the case in the Temple. Alternatively, kedem simply refers to the front of the garden, in whatever direction it may have been. And He placed the blade of the ever-turning sword, which blocked the way, to guard the path to the tree of life, at least for the time being, until God decides to return the man to the Garden of Eden. Angels and heavenly forces of deterrence removed the possibility of immortality from man’s grasp. The man understood that he could no longer return to the garden, and that he had to seek his destiny elsewhere.

The man had been intimate with Eve his wife while they were still in the Garden of Eden. Since Eve gave birth after their banishment, the verse relates the entire story here. And she conceived and gave birth to Cain and said: I have acquired [ kaniti ] a man with the Lord. Eve was amazed by the first human birth, at the fact that she, together with God, created a man that until now did not exist. Eve felt that she could not create man by herself; she was instead a partner with God in giving birth to this new being. To this day, women in labor, and indeed people in general, express similar astonishment at the wonder of childbirth.

She continued to give birth to his brother, who was called Abel. In contrast to Cain, no reason is given for the choice of Abel’s name. Many explain that the name alludes to Abel’s sad demise; like hevel , vapor, nothing was left of him. His name can also be interpreted in a positive manner, as a reference to a breath of wind, as if the birth of Abel revealed something of a spiritual nature. If so, this passage touches on the foundations of human existence: The first child, Cain, sparked amazement at the birth process itself, whereas the second child, Abel, revealed the wonder of diversity, which is inherent in the human spirit. Although mankind would eventually become accustomed to these marvels, for Adam and Eve the fact that such diverse children could emerge from the same parents was truly remarkable. It is unknown how these two children differed from one another at birth, although the differences between them eventually manifested themselves in behavior: Abel was a shepherd; he would milk the sheep and shear their wool, but he did not eat their meat; and Cain was a cultivator of the ground.

It happened, after some time, perhaps years later. According to one opinion, this occurred forty years after the birth of Cain and Abel. Cain brought from the fruit of the ground an offering to the Lord. In contrast to various theories claiming otherwise, this episode indicates the fundamental nature of bringing an offering and that this concept was not introduced by foreign cultures. From the very beginnings of humanity, people felt the need to bring gifts to God. Later, these gift offerings would be called burnt offerings, as they were burnt in their entirety in God’s honor. These offerings were not considered a tax; they were not even obligatory. Although the Recipient of the gift has no need for it, the gift offering allows the giver to express his feelings toward Him.

And Abel, he too brought an offering to God from the firstborn of his flock and from the choicest of them; and the Lord turned toward Abel and to his offering. The verse does not explain how this acceptance expressed itself. Perhaps a fire descended from heaven upon Abel’s offering, as occurred in other instances, or perhaps it was evident that Abel’s offering was accepted because he was in high spirits or experienced some euphoric state.

But toward Cain and to his offering He did not turn. The two brothers were presumably close in age and had similar characteristics. God’s preference for one brother over the other was therefore highly upsetting for the one who was rejected. Cain was very incensed, and his face became downcast. Understood literally, this expression is an accurate and straightforward description of the behavior of a shamed, disappointed, and angry individual, who lowers his face toward the ground.

The Lord said to Cain: Why are you incensed, and why did your face become downcast? While it is true that I chose Abel, why are you angry? Although you were not chosen, I did not harm you. Why, then, do you feel despised and ashamed? God reproved Cain for his jealousy, an emotion that easily leads to unjustified rage.

Truly, if you do good, you will be elevated. If you improve your deeds and behave properly, you will be elevated. This phrase might be an indication that Cain did not bring his offering wholeheartedly, or that he did not select his choicest produce, as expounded by the Sages. And if you do not do good, remember that sin crouches at the entrance. Beyond the very existence of evil is the concept of sin, which is the introduction of evil into the world through the deeds of man. In this figurative representation, sin is depicted as a living creature that prowls at an entrance and seeks to enter. Behind this verse lies the perception that when a person acts properly, he thereby prevents sin from controlling him, while if he does not, even if he does not actually perform evil, sin crouches at the entrance. And its desire is for you. In contrast to the common perception of man as the one who desires to sin, the verse describes the personified sin as seeking to control man. But you may rule over it. It is within man’s potential to rule over sin. He must keep in mind that sin is ever present, and that it seeks to build itself and grow powerful by attaching itself to him. As long as man is the one in control, and he does not let it conquer him, his existence is assured.

Although Cain heard the words of God, he did not internalize them at all and held firm to his jealousy: Cain said to Abel his brother. The verse does not specify what Cain said to Abel. Perhaps he suggested that they travel somewhere together. Maybe he leveled harsh accusations against him or informed him of God’s statement. In any case, there was some conversation between Cain and Abel that amplified the friction between them: It happened when they were in the field, when they happened to be alone, that Cain arose against Abel his brother and killed him. In his overpowering rage, Cain fell upon Abel and killed him.

At the dawn of humanity, man was still capable of hearing the word of God directly: The Lord said to Cain: Where is Abel your brother? Similar to the question posed to Adam on the heels of his transgression: Where are you? God turned to Cain with a question following his sin. There were many possible responses to God’s question. Cain could have broken down in tears and admitted that he had committed a terrible crime. Instead, he feigned ignorance: He said: I do not know. It is unknown what Cain did with Abel’s body after killing him. Perhaps he threw it aside, or buried it, or maybe he simply left it untouched. It is entirely possible that Cain’s response was sincere, as this was the first human death. If so, his response bears relevance to one of mankind’s burning questions: What happens to a person after he dies? Nevertheless, the conclusion of his response indicates a denial of responsibility: Am I my brother’s keeper?

He, God, said to Cain: What have you done? Think about your actions. Do not behave like those individuals, and this includes criminals, who attempt to justify or rationalize their behavior by claiming: It happened spontaneously, or: I lost my temper. The voice of your brother’s blood cries out to Me from the ground. The murder itself calls out with the cry of unfulfilled life. The spilled blood screams out not only over the pain and the injustice but also for the loss of life itself.

Now, cursed are you from the ground that opened its mouth to take your brother’s blood from your hand. In contrast to the various midrashim that discuss how the blood of certain murder victims was not swallowed up by and continued to bubble up on the ground, Abel’s blood was accepted by the ground, as it were, and absorbed by it. The ground is therefore involved in Cain’s curse.

When you cultivate the ground, it shall not continue giving its strength to you. The ground is cursed on your account; it shall cease to be a source of life for you. Instead, restless and itinerant shall you be on the earth. You shall wander the earth and suffice with what you find during your travels. You are not banished from the ground itself, but from its produce. You no longer have any share in the life stored in the ground.

Cain said to the Lord: My punishment [ avoni ] is greater than I can bear. Although the word avon is usually interpreted as iniquity, it seems more likely that Cain was referring to his punishment rather than the deed itself. Indeed, there are many instances in which the words avon , iniquity, ĥet , transgression, and pesha , sin, are used in reference to a punishment instead of a deed. This interpretation suits the continuation of Cain’s statement:

Behold, You have banished me this day from the face of the land. The ground no longer accepts me, and I feel as though the land is burning beneath my feet. Consequently, I cannot settle anywhere. And from Your face shall I be hidden. How will I be able to present myself before You? Cain was warned that sin crouches at the entrance (4:7). Now, after allowing sin to control him to such an extent that he killed his brother, he was too ashamed to bare his face before God. I shall be restless and itinerant on the earth, and anyone who finds me will kill me. I am now exposed to all the dangers of the world. I will find no security anywhere on earth; I cannot even take shelter in Your presence, and I am unprotected from other living creatures. Cain’s statement expresses the loneliness of a murderer, who feels that the entire world despises him.

The Lord said to him: Therefore, anyone who kills Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold. Although you sinned, you will not be punished with immediate death. Rather, you shall be provided with some form of protection, so that you will be able to continue living. The Lord placed a sign for Cain, so that anyone who finds him shall not smite him. This sign, whatever it was, somehow enabled Cain to bear his punishment.

Cain departed from the presence of the Lord and lived in the land of Nod, east of Eden. Some commentaries hold that this was an actual land called Nod. Others interpret the verse as meaning that Cain attempted to settle in various lands, but he was cast out of each one. Consequently, he was left to wander [ noded ] from land to land. According to this explanation, the emphasis on the fact that Cain dwelled east of Eden serves to further highlight Cain’s broken state: Cain was from the second generation following the banishment from the Garden of Eden, and now he himself had been exiled.

At this stage, the propagation of the human race was effected through marriage between siblings. Adam and Eve begot girls, who became their brothers’ wives: Cain was intimate with his wife and she conceived, and gave birth to a son called Hanokh; he, Cain, was the builder of a city. Cain was not just the cursed son; he was also the creative son. As the preceding verses will describe, this creativity was apparent in his descendants as well. And he, Cain, called the name of the city after the name of his son Hanokh. This name alludes to ĥanikha , beginning. Cain chose this name for the city because it marked the beginning of the craft of building. It may also serve as an indication that Cain became educated [ hitĥanekh ]. However, Cain’s central motive in building a city was his desire to connect to a place and establish roots within it. However, due to the curse imposed upon him, he was unable to actually live in this city. Indeed, the Torah refers to Cain’s construction of the city in the progressive tense, indicating that it was never definitely completed. Rather, throughout his wanderings to and from the land of Nod, he would return to this place to add a stone or two. In this manner, the city was slowly built.

The verse lists Cain’s descendants. A son called Irad was born to Hanokh; and Irad begot Mehuyael; and Mehuyael begot Metushael; and Metushael begot Lemekh. A comparison with the genealogy in the following chapter reveals that the descendants of Seth had names that were similar to those of the descendants of Cain. Apparently, in those times, many children born in the same generation were called by similar names.

The verse momentarily dwells on Lemekh on account of his unique behavior: Lemekh took for himself two wives. This is possibly the first instance of polygamy. At first each man married just one woman. This was never explicitly commanded by God, but arose from a basic intuition. Still, by taking two wives Lemekh breached the existing boundaries. This is a further expression of the ambition of Cain’s family to grow and create, although it is possible that Lemekh simply lusted after more than one woman or that he married his second wife because the first had yet to produce children. The name of one was Ada, and the name of the other Tzila.

Ada gave birth to Yaval; he was the forerunner of those who dwell in tents and raise livestock. Yaval, like his father Lemekh, introduced a new practice. Perhaps he was trying to continue Abel’s legacy; indeed, even their names are similar. Although shepherding was already introduced by Abel, he left no descendants, vanishing from the world like hevel , vapor. As a result, a culture of shepherding had yet to develop. By contrast, Cain sought to establish a stable agricultural society, and it can be assumed that his sons followed him and cultivated the ground as well. In addition, Cain sought to build a city, a permanent settlement. Here, one of Cain’s descendants returned to the practice of shepherding and developed it into a distinct culture, thus becoming the forerunner of those who dwell in tents and among livestock.

And the name of his brother was Yuval. Yuval, like many of Cain’s progeny, was a creative individual; he was the forerunner of all those who grasp the harp and pipe. He was the first musician, the inventor of the first musical instruments.

And Tzila, she too gave birth to Tuval Cain. Just as the names Yaval and Yuval are reminiscent of Abel, the name Tuval Cain combines Abel with Cain, patriarch of this family. Tuval Cain was the forger of every sharp instrument of bronze and iron; he was the first metalworker. Until Tuval Cain, people relied on the simplest materials that were readily available in nature. Tuval Cain’s revolutionary discovery was the extraction of copper and iron from the earth. Although some have criticized Tuval Cain for being responsible for introducing armaments into the world, the verse refers explicitly only to the creative act of metalworking, with no mention of weapons. And the sister of Tuval Cain was Naama.

Lemekh said to his wives. This is the first poem in the Torah. It is structured in the form of parallels between pairs of phrases, as is common in the poetry of the Bible: Ada and Tzila, hear my voice; wives of Lemekh, listen to my speech; for I have slain a man for my wound and a child for my injury. The Torah does not provide the background for Lemekh’s poem. According to one midrash, Lemekh killed Cain unwittingly, and the phrase “I have slain a man” is Lemekh’s confession. Some commentaries maintain that Lemekh’s statement is not an expression of regret but a boast, as if to say: One who wounds me or bruises me I will kill. It is possible that Lemekh was confessing to his wives that he too participated in some act of killing, not necessarily the murder of Cain, but that he acted unwittingly.

Therefore, as Cain shall be avenged sevenfold, and Lemekh seventy-seven-fold. If God had pity upon Cain and assured him that he would be avenged sevenfold, then I, who killed unwittingly, deserve even greater protection than that provided to Cain (verse 15).

At first, Adam and Eve had two sons, until one killed the other. It is possible that because of this terrible tragedy of the first murder in the first family, the couple did not immediately want to reproduce. Perhaps they wondered whether they even wanted to bring another child into the world. It took some time until they recovered, after which Adam was intimate with his wife again and she gave birth to a son, and she called his name Seth [Shet]: As God has provided [ shat ] me with another offspring in place of Abel, as Cain killed him. From the continuation of the record of human history, it emerges that Seth was the foundation of mankind. All of humanity descended from him, effectively making him the father of the human race. This is why the Bible uses the expression “sons of Seth” as a synonym for sons of Adam, or people.

And to Seth too a son was born; and he called his name Enosh. The name Enosh is also used as a synonym for mankind. Then commenced [ huĥal ] proclaiming the name of the Lord. There are two opposing interpretations of this statement. According to one opinion, this means that during the period of Enosh, people began to institute prayer and organized worship. Previously, Cain and Abel brought offerings out of a spontaneous religious awakening, without any temple or established structure for worship. Only in the generation of Enosh, when human society grew, did there develop an orderly forum for calling in the name of God. According to the second opinion, the term huĥal relates to the words ĥullin , non-sacred, and ĥillul , desecration. That is, in the days of Enosh people began to desecrate the name of God by introducing idol worship. Initially, idolaters believed in the oneness of God, but they thought that entities through which His power is expressed, either through impressive force, beauty, or some unique quality, were also worthy of reverence. It is only a short leap from such a belief to deifying the entities themselves. The calling of various objects and powers in the name of God, whether this occurred at once or as a gradual process of deterioration that merely began in the generation of Enosh, is at the root of idol worship.

This is the book of the legacy of Adam. Although the Torah already discussed the events of Adam’s life, that was not a historical record with any chronological context. Until here, the Torah has presented fundamental paradigms: the Garden of Eden, the sin and its punishment, choosing evil, the first children, sibling rivalry, the first murder, and regret. This chapter provides a short survey of many generations, beginning with the dawn of human history. This process began on the day that God created man, in the likeness of God He made him. The uniqueness of man is that he was created in the likeness of God, and his history therefore merits special attention.

Male and female He created them. Earlier, the Torah detailed the complex process of creating man. Here it simply states that the male and the female were initially created together. Though this might seem to contradict the previous account, wherein the woman was built from the man while he was in a deep sleep (2:21–22), that was merely a procedure in which the theretofore unified male and female forms were separated from one another. He blessed them, and He called their name Man [Adam], on the day they were created. Of the various terms for human beings, including Adam, ish , Enosh, and gever , Adam is the primary name for the human race and most representative of its essence, both because man was created from the adama , ground (2:7), and because he was formed in the demut , likeness, of God (see verse 1; 1:26). Indeed, this is how the Sages explain the verse: “I will be like [ edammeh ] the Most High.”

Adam lived one hundred and thirty years, and begot a son in his likeness, after his image. Some commentaries maintain that before this time, he begot defective offspring who were not in his likeness or after his image. However, the plain meaning of the text is that the child born after 130 years resembled Adam, and this has no bearing on any kind of defect in other offspring. And he called his name Seth [Shet]. This name resembles the word tashtit , foundation, as humanity was founded upon him.

The Torah now provides an extremely brief list of the generations until the time of the flood: The days of Adam after he begot Seth were eight hundred years; and during this time he begot sons and daughters. The Torah does not provide the names of these children or any details of their lives, as they have no importance for the reader.

All the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years; and he died.

Seth lived one hundred and five years, and he begot Enosh.

Seth lived after he begot Enosh eight hundred and seven years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days that Seth lived were nine hundred and twelve years; and he died. It is unknown if all the sons listed by name in this genealogical record were specifically firstborn offspring. It is possible that the Torah mentions only the first son by name, as his birth divides the father’s life into two periods, before becoming a father and after. There may be other reasons why each son is mentioned by name. In any case, the family line continues through each of these sons until the birth of Noah.

Enosh lived ninety years, and he begot Kenan. This name, like Cain’s, relates to ownership and acquisition [ kinyan ].

Enosh lived after he begot Kenan eight hundred and fifteen years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Enosh were nine hundred and five years; and he died.

Kenan lived seventy years, and he begot Mahalalel.

Kenan lived after he begot Mahalalel eight hundred and forty years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Kenan were nine hundred and ten years; and he died.

Mahalalel lived sixty-five years, and he begot Yered.

Mahalalel lived after he begot Yered eight hundred and thirty years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Mahalalel were eight hundred and ninety-five years; and he died.

Yered lived one hundred and sixty-two years, and he begot Hanokh.

Yered lived after he begot Hanokh eight hundred years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Yered were nine hundred and sixty-two years; and he died.

Hanokh lived sixty-five years, and he begot Methuselah.

Hanokh walked with God after he begot Methuselah three hundred years; and he begot sons and daughters. The concept of walking with God appears throughout the Bible, and denotes a close relationship with God. Hanokh was close to God and was occupied with His worship. Hanokh was possibly a prophet or an exceedingly righteous man.

All the days of Hanokh were three hundred and sixty-five years, far fewer than those of his father or his son.

Hanokh walked with God and he was not, for God took him. Hanokh was an exceptional and mysterious figure. It is possible that God took him up to Heaven alive just as He took the prophet Elijah. Indeed, various sources state that to this day, Hanokh remains in Heaven, as a kind of angel, similar to Elijah. Perhaps God brought him into His court because he did not belong in this world.

Methuselah lived one hundred and eighty-seven years, and he begot Lemekh.

Methuselah lived after he begot Lemekh seven hundred and eighty-two years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Methuselah were nine hundred and sixty-nine years; and he died. Methuselah is the oldest person recorded in the Bible.

Lemekh lived one hundred and eighty-two years, and he begot a son.

He called his name Noah, saying: This shall relieve us from the suffering of our work and from the misery of our hands, from the ground, which the Lord has cursed. Noah received this name because already from birth he was recognized as special. The commentaries and midrashim discuss what might have made Noah so unique. Noah was named after a prophecy, or after the hope, or as a prayer, that there would be relief from the toil and suffering. Indeed, the events of his life proved that Noah was the hope of humanity. Nevertheless, he did not provide relief for all of humanity, as only Noah and his family were spared during the flood. He did not bring salvation to the rest of mankind.

Lemekh lived after he begot Noah five hundred and ninety-five years; and he begot sons and daughters.

All the days of Lemekh were seven hundred and seventy-seven years; and he died.

Noah was five hundred years old; and Noah begot Shem, Ham, and Yefet. The Sages debate whether this listing reflects the order of their births. The verse marks the conclusion of the book of the descendants of Adam, which contains the names of representatives of the ten generations from Adam to Noah, but it provides almost no information about them. This “book of the legacy of Adam” concludes in a generation that underwent a great transformation. For this reason, the Torah goes into detail with regard to Noah and notes that already at his birth he was made a locus for humanity’s hope, by a prophecy that through him the world would be rectified. A new world would indeed begin with him, albeit in an unexpected manner.

It was, when men began to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters were born to them;

the sons of the great ones [ benei ha’elohim ] saw that the daughters of man were fair. Some explain that with the proliferation of the human race came the development of a social hierarchy. The term benei ha’elohim refers to members of an upper class that grew apart from the rest of humanity. According to this understanding, the daughters of man were women of the lower classes. According to another interpretation, the sons of God were angels who arrived in this world and were granted human bodies and qualities as a kind of test, which they failed. Although they ceased to be angels, they still retained their supernatural powers alongside their human urges. According to this opinion, the daughters of man refers to mortal women. And they took for themselves wives, from whomever they chose, whether young or old, single or married, without consideration for laws of any kind.

Society turned a blind eye to lawlessness. No one interfered with or objected to the breaching of boundaries. Therefore, the Lord said: My spirit shall not abide in man forever. According to many commentaries, the verse means: My spirit shall not fight and complain about man forever, for he too is flesh. Man has repeatedly failed to actualize his superiority over other creatures; therefore, he too is only flesh. And his days shall be one hundred and twenty years. I will grant mankind an extension of 120 years before sealing its fate. If man does not change, humanity will cease to exist in its current form.

The verse notes: The giants [ nefilim ] were on the earth in those days, and also thereafter. It is possible that they were called nefilim because they fell [ nafelu ] from their position of greatness, or because they were more wondrous [ nifla ] than the rest of humanity. The nefilim are mentioned much later as well, some as mythical creatures, others as actual people, perhaps remnants of the primeval giants mentioned in this verse. The nefilim were born when the sons of the great ones consorted with the daughters of man, and they bore them children. Although the nefilim were not themselves “sons of the great ones” in either sense mentioned above, as their children they were nonetheless great and powerful. Although few in number, the nefilim ruled over many places in the world. For example, Og, king of Bashan, was described as one of the last surviving descendants of these giants. He was killed by the children of Israel in his kingdom, the Bashan, in the present-day Golan Heights. They were the mighty who were from ancient times, the men of renown, those who made a name for themselves and were remembered by later generations. When people spoke of the mighty men of yore, they were referring to these nefilim .

The Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil all the time. One’s inclinations are not necessarily evil; they are the proactive and creative force within man, which can lead him in various directions. Indeed, the Sages speak of a good inclination. The verse, however, refers to an inclination that is completely evil. That is, man chose to utilize his inclination exclusively for evil.

The Lord regretted, as it were, that He had made man on the earth. The hopes placed upon man, who was granted free will, were dashed. And He was saddened in His heart. The verse employs anthropomorphic expressions toward God, meant to convey that the creation of man was a failure. Some explain the verse as follows: The Lord considered and decided with regard to the man that He had made on the earth, and He brought sadness to the heart of man.

The Lord said: I will obliterate man whom I have created from the face of the earth; from man to animal, to crawling creatures, to birds of the heavens; for I regret that I made them. Man is not simply the pinnacle of creation, but the very purpose of it. Only man can direct the many objects and creatures of the world to their collective purpose. Consequently, in his absence, all of creation loses its reason for being. The Sages teach a parable to illustrate this idea: A man fashioned a wedding canopy for his son and prepared many types of food for the wedding feast. Sometime later, before the wedding, his son died. The father then dismantled the canopy, saying: I fashioned all this only for my son. Now that he is dead, why do I need a wedding canopy? Similarly, the Holy One, blessed be He, said: I created all the animals only for man. Now that man sins, why do I need these creatures?

But from the entire human race, only Noah found favor in the eyes of the Lord. After being disappointed by the rest of Adam’s descendants, God chose Noah as the father of the new humanity, due to his special qualities.

This is the legacy of Noah, the story of his life in brief. Noah was a righteous, wholehearted man in his generations; in contrast to those surrounding him, Noah walked with God. Noah was connected to God, as he contemplated Him and lived with an awareness of the Divine. During this period, when mankind had not yet received God’s commandments, one’s relationship with God was not expressed in mandated actions. It is stated about Noah, as well as Hanokh before him and Abraham after him, that they walked with or before God (5:22, 17:1). This means that God was the subject of their lives, and they had a special relationship with Him.

Noah begot three sons: Shem, Ham, and Yefet.

After a brief description of Noah as a private individual, the focus returns to the history of the world and Noah’s important role in the unfolding events. The earth was corrupted before God, and the earth was filled with villainy. The absence of law and order, described above in relation to men taking women as they chose (verse 2), was not limited to the sexual sphere. This corruption also found expression in the manner in which the powerful exerted control over the weak, as people began to steal and snatch property from one another without compunction. As a result, the very possibility of possession and ownership was eliminated.

God saw the earth, and behold, it was corrupted, as all flesh corrupted its path upon the earth. People’s lives in the environment of the time were apparently quiet and comfortable, with abundant food and water. 1 However, instead of being happy with their lot, the people exploited the abundance that was in easy reach by stealing from one another and refusing to recognize property laws and social conventions. Limits and boundaries did not exist for them.

God said to Noah: The end of all flesh has come before Me. According to My reckoning, the end of all living creatures has arrived, as the earth is filled with villainy because of them; and behold, I will destroy them with the earth. I will destroy them together with the earth itself. However, you have been chosen to continue humanity.

Therefore, make for you an ark of the relatively light gopher wood; separate compartments shall you make the ark, and you shall coat it within and without with pitch, a kind of tar from which asphalt is produced. The tar will serve as a waterproofing substance.

And this is how you shall make it: Three hundred cubits shall be the length of the ark, fifty cubits its breadth, and thirty cubits its height. This is a huge structure, of exceptional proportions even in comparison to structures built on land.

You shall make a window for the ark, to allow the entrance of light. And to a cubit shall you complete it at the top; the sides of the ark shall form a kind of trapezoid, with the roof of the ark one cubit long. And the entrance of the ark you shall place in its side, for entering and exiting. Lower, second, and third stories you shall make it; the ark shall have three floors.

And behold, I am bringing the flood [ mabbul ]. The term mabbul is commonly translated as flood, based on the context. 2 However, it is likely that the word actually means “judgment” or “sentence.” 3 In other words, God is bringing a sentence of judgment in the form of water upon the earth to destroy all flesh in which there is the breath of life, from under the heavens. In those waters, everything that is on the earth, everything that is generally found on dry land, shall perish.

But at this juncture I will keep My covenant with you, which will be confirmed and fulfilled at a later point (see 9:9–11). You shall come to the ark: you, and your sons, and your wife, and your sons’ wives with you.

From every living being of all flesh, two of each you shall bring to the ark to keep alive with you; they shall be male and female. You must bring into the ark the living beings that will form the basis of the future existence of both mankind and the animal kingdom.

From the birds according to their kind, and from the animals according to their kind, from every crawling creature of the ground according to its kind, two of each shall come to you. You are not commanded to hunt them; rather, I will make them come to you in pairs. 4 The aim is to keep all of the species of the world alive from them. Although you are not required to gather the animals into the ark, there is another duty which you are obligated to perform:

You, take for you from all food that is eaten. You must collect enough appropriate food for you and all the animals that will be living in the ark. And gather it to you; and it shall be for you and for them for food.

Noah did according to all that God had commanded him; so he did. It should not be inferred from the brevity of the account that this was a simple process. Various midrashim describe at length Noah’s difficulties during the years of the construction of the ark. 5 For over one hundred years Noah was occupied with building an enormous structure. 6 The ark that he built did not have a steering wheel, mast, sail, or oar. It resembled neither a ship nor a building. It was not meant to sail in any particular direction, but merely to float. It is easy to imagine the practical and social difficulties of this effort, and the halting efforts that Noah might have made to explain the purpose of his work to others.

The Lord said to Noah: Come you and your entire household into the ark, for I have seen you to be righteous before Me in this generation. Unlike the animals, who were selected at random to enter the ark, you were chosen from all humans because of your righteousness.

From every pure animal you shall take to you seven pairs, each pair composed of a male and his mate. It is commonly explained that this is referring to animals that would later be considered pure, kosher according to halakha . It is possible, however, that the distinction between pure and impure animals is an ancient one, which predates the giving of the Torah. And of the animals that are not pure, two, a male and his mate; literally, a man and his wife. Since the Torah is speaking of specific pairs of animals, who are to be the sole survivors of that species, it refers to the male and female animal with the unusual expression of a man and his wife.

Also from the birds of the heavens, take with you seven each, male and female, in order to keep offspring alive on the face of all the earth.

For in seven more days, I will make it rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights, and I will obliterate all existence that I made, everything that lives, from the face of the earth.

Noah did according to all that the Lord had commanded him. Although Noah had not yet seen any actual flooding, he still entered the ark in obedience with God’s command, as he believed His word.

Noah was six hundred years old at that time, and the flood, or sentence of judgment, was water upon the earth.

Noah, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him, came into the ark, because of the water of the flood.

From the pure animal, and from the animal that is not pure, and from the birds, and from every creature that crawls upon the ground,

two at a time they came by themselves to Noah into the ark, male and female, as God had commanded Noah. In the case of most species they came in pairs, while from certain species there were sets of seven pairs. It is these animals that survived in the ark.

It was after the passage of seven days that the water of the flood was upon the earth. The water began to cover the earth.

In the six hundredth year of the life of Noah, during the second month: It is possible that this is referring to the second month after Noah’s birthday. However, the Sages maintain that it means the second month of the calendar year, which follows the Creation of the world. They disagree whether this is the month of Iyar, which is second after Nisan, or Marĥeshvan, which follows Tishrei. 7 On the seventeenth day of the month, on that day all the wellsprings of the great depth, which ordinarily flow slowly and in moderation, were breached, and the windows of the heavens were opened. This was not a sprinkle, as water gushed out and inundated the land.

The rain was upon the earth for forty consecutive days and forty nights.

On that very day, Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Yefet, the sons of Noah, and Noah’s wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, entered into the ark;

they, and every beast according to its kind, and every animal according to its kind, and every crawling creature that crawls upon the earth according to its kind, and every flying thing according to its kind , every bird, every winged creature, even winged insects. 8

They came to Noah to the ark, two each from all flesh in which there is the breath of life.

And they that came, male and female from all flesh came, as God had commanded him; and the Lord shut it for him. Due to the unparalleled intensity of the waters of the flood, which came from above and below, God’s own special closing of the ark, as it were, was required to prevent water from penetrating inside.

The flood was forty days upon the earth; and the water increased, and lifted the ark, and it was raised above the earth. After forty days of incessant flooding, the ark, which was undoubtedly very heavy, began to rise above the earth.

The water accumulated and increased greatly upon the earth, and the ark went upon the face of the water. The ark began to float. Since it was not a ship and there was no way to direct it, the ark simply drifted along, drawn by the flow and movement of the water.

The water accumulated exceedingly upon the earth, and all the high mountains under the entire heavens were covered.

Fifteen cubits upward the water accumulated, and the mountains were covered.

All flesh that crawls upon the earth, of the birds, and of the animals, and of the beasts, and of all the swarming creatures that swarm upon the earth, and all mankind, perished.

All in whose nostrils was the breath of the spirit of life, from all that was on the dry land, died. All creatures living in dry places passed away. 9 The force of the water, its quantity, and according to the Sages, even its heat, 10 destroyed all the living creatures. Presumably the animals that could swim tried to do so, but they could not withstand the overpowering water. The people certainly tried to find a hiding place or grab onto planks to stay afloat, but all such material was washed away.

He obliterated all existence that was upon the face of the earth, from man, to animal, to crawling creature, to birds of the heavens; they were obliterated from the earth. Only Noah remained and they that were with him in the ark.

The water accumulated upon the earth one hundred and fifty days. Over the course of these one hundred and fifty days, perhaps the rain continued to fall, and the wellsprings did not stop up, but the force of the water weakened. During this period, everything flowed and intermingled: The oceans surged past the coastline and the seas broke their boundaries. For almost half a year, there was nothing in the world except for water and the ark floating somewhere upon it. Its occupants did not know where they were, and possibly they could not even know how much time had elapsed since they had shut themselves in the ark, as time calculations in those days depended on the celestial bodies. It is doubtful whether they could even distinguish between day and night. 11

God remembered Noah and all the beasts and all the animals that were with him in the ark; God caused a wind to pass over the earth, and the water subsided. The water rested from its rage and did not descend anymore in the form of rain nor surge from the depths.

The wellsprings of the depth and the windows of the heavens were dammed, closed, and the rain from the heavens was terminated.

The water receded from upon the earth gradually. The water that had swelled and risen above the mountains descended into the valleys, from where it flowed into the sea. These processes took time, as the entire world was inundated with water. And the water was diminished at the end of one hundred and fifty days. After one hundred and fifty days of flooding, the water began to diminish.

The ark rested during the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, at the conclusion of one hundred and fifty days starting from the second month, upon the mountains of Ararat. The water level receded until the ark rested once again on the earth, although not in the place where Noah had built it. The ark was presumably constructed in a then-inhabited area, in or around modern-day Iraq, and it drifted a considerable distance to the high mountains of Ararat, which are likely close to the mountains called by that name today. 12

And the water gradually receded until the tenth month; during the tenth month, on the first of the month, the peaks of the mountains were revealed and seen. Since the ark was exceedingly heavy and deeply immersed in the water, it took additional time from when it rested on the peak until the mountains themselves were exposed.

It was at the end of forty days from the time that the tops of the mountains could first be seen. Only after the mountaintops became visible could it be known with certainty that the water was gradually receding. Noah opened the window of the ark that he made.

He sent the raven. Noah chose to send a raven, on the assumption that a bird which feeds on carrion would be the first to find itself something to eat. Were it to find food, Noah would know that the water level had diminished. 13 And it went to and fro, without bringing back any sign, until the drying of the water from upon the earth.

He sent the dove from him, as this bird is also capable of flying long distances, to see if the waters had abated from upon the surface of the ground.

But the dove did not find rest for its foot, and it returned to him to the ark, as water was on the face of the entire earth; and he extended his hand and took it, and brought it to him to the ark.

He waited yet another seven days and again sent the dove from the ark.

The dove came in to him at evening time, after it had been sent off in the morning, and behold, it had plucked 14 an olive leaf in its mouth. Since olive leaves are relatively tough, they did not rot in the water. And Noah knew that the waters had abated [ kallu ], that they had become light [ kal ] and diminished from upon the earth.

He waited yet another seven days and sent the dove, and it did not return again to him anymore, as it found rest in one of the spots that had dried up in the meantime.

It was in the six hundred and first year, during the first month on the first of the month; the water dried from upon the earth, those areas that had been dry land prior to the flood. Noah removed the cover of the ark, as apparently the window was very small and he was able to see out only after removing the cover; and he saw, and behold, the surface of the ground dried. The water had disappeared, but the ground was still sodden.

During the second month, on the twenty-seventh day of the month, the earth dried. It took a long time until the ground fully dried up, to the extent that it was possible to tread upon it.

Nevertheless, Noah remained in the ark. Just as he did not enter the ark of his own initiative, so too, now he waited for a divine command to exit it. 15 And indeed, God spoke to Noah, saying:

Go out of the ark: You, and your wife, and your sons, and your sons’ wives with you.

Every living being that is with you from all flesh, of the birds, and of the animals, and of every crawling creature that crawls on the earth, bring out with you. Remove them forcibly, as the animals had become accustomed to life in the ark. Although they were confined there, they had easy access to food. Moreover, some of them may have been in a state of hibernation due to the conditions. It was therefore necessary to compel them to leave. And they will teem [ veshartzu ] on the earth, by increasing greatly in number so that they will be found everywhere, like creeping animals [ sheratzim ], 16 and be fruitful and multiply upon the earth. In this manner the world will be populated afresh.

Noah emerged, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him.

Every beast, every crawling creature and every bird, every creature that crawls on the earth, after their families, emerged from the ark.

Noah built an altar to the Lord, and he took from every pure animal and from every pure bird, and sacrificed burnt offerings on the altar.

The Lord smelled the pleasing aroma. This is a symbolic expression, which appears elsewhere in connection with offerings. Its plain meaning is satisfaction. And the Lord said in His heart, an anthropomorphic expression denoting divine contemplation: I will not continue to curse the ground anymore on account of man, as I did with the flood, as the inclination of man’s heart is evil from his youth [ mine’urav ]. he Sages expound: From when he stirs himself [ ninar ] and emerges into the world, from birth. 17 Man is not by nature evil. But he is given freedom to choose and is subject to constant temptation. And therefore I will not continue to smite every living being anymore, as I did. In order to repair the corruption of the evil inclination, mankind requires a fixed and stable world. Therefore, human history will know no more all-encompassing, catastrophic events like the flood, but rather there will be relatively moderate rises and falls.

As long as the earth endures, planting and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night shall not cease. During the flood, the seasons of the year and the alternation between day and night came to a stop. Afterward, God reestablished regular time and its units, and determined that they shall not cease again. The world will follow its natural path, the human race will survive, and never again will there be a total flood.

To establish the above promise, God turns to Noah and his family with blessings and commandments. In rabbinic and later literature these are called the seven Noahide mitzvot. God blessed Noah and his sons, and He said to them: Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth. This blessing had already been given to Adam, but it seems that God canceled it with the flood. Therefore, this blessing is granted here once again.

Fear of you and dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, upon every bird of the heavens, upon all that crawls on the ground, and upon all fish of the sea. Into your hand they are all given. Before the flood, relations between man and the animals were mostly peaceful. Although man had been given dominion over the animal world (1:28), and some engaged in animal husbandry, people were prohibited to exploit animals for food, and apparently they refrained from causing them any harm. Here God casts dread of man upon all other living creatures.

And in addition, every crawling creature that lives shall be yours for food; from now on you are permitted to eat animals. Like green vegetation I have given you everything; until now both you and animals were vegetarians, 18 whereas now you are given permission to eat everything in the world.

After God has granted permission to eat animal flesh, He now places limits on this allowance. But flesh with its life, its blood, you shall not eat. One may not eat the flesh of an animal when it is still connected to its soul. This is the prohibition against eating a limb cut from a living animal. 19 Although man is permitted to eat animals, this does not give him the right to act in a cruel manner.

This verse states another limitation: But I will demand your blood of your lives, as your right to kill other creatures does not extend to people. Human beings cannot be compared to other living things. If someone’s blood is spilled, the responsibility is upon the person who spilled it. And similarly, from every beast I will demand it. Animals are held responsible for shedding human blood just as people are. When the Torah will be given, it will include a halakha that the court must sentence and put to death an ox or any other animal that kills a human being. 20 And, as stated, from man, from every man for shedding the blood of his brother , 21 will I demand the life of man.

One who sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed. This is the first appearance of the death penalty, which is imposed on a murderer. The verse provides the reason for all these commands: As He made man in the image of God. Man is not merely one of the creatures of the zoological system. Since he was created in the image of God, he must be treated with greater respect.

And you, be fruitful and multiply; teem on the earth, and multiply on it. Some of the instructions that were given to Adam are still valid. Nevertheless, new commands are stated here that are appropriate for a changed world.

God spoke to Noah, and to his sons with him, saying: You must observe these obligations that I have imposed upon you.

And I hereby establish, set up and enact, My covenant with you, and with your descendants after you;

and with every living soul that is with you, with the birds, and with the animals, and with every beast of the earth that is with you; from all that emerged from the ark. The covenant applies to every beast of the earth; it is valid with respect to all living creatures in the world. 22

And I will establish My covenant with you, which in essence is that all flesh shall not be excised again by water of the flood; there shall not be a flood anymore to destroy the earth.

God said: This is the sign of the covenant that I place between Me and you and every living soul that is with you, for eternal generations:

My rainbow I have set in the cloud, and it shall be as a sign of a covenant between Me and the earth. The rainbow shall signify the covenant between Me and the earth’s inhabitants.

It shall be when I bring a cloud over the earth, and the rainbow will be seen in the cloud,

I will remember My covenant that is between Me and you and every living soul of all flesh, and the water shall not become a flood anymore to destroy all flesh.

The rainbow shall be in the cloud, and I will see it, to remember the eternal covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth.

God said to Noah: This is the sign of the covenant that I have established between Me and all flesh that is upon the earth. The rainbow represents the covenant between God and mankind. Since it can also be viewed as a sign of God’s revelation in the world, the Sages instructed that one must treat a rainbow with proper respect, and one must take care not to gaze upon it. 23

The sons of Noah, who emerged from the ark, were Shem, and Ham, and Yefet; and Ham was the father of Canaan. This additional mention of one of their children is important for the continuation of the story.

These three were the sons of Noah, and from these the whole earth was dispersed. The sons of Noah multiplied until they filled the entire world.

Noah, man of the soil, began, and he planted a vineyard. As related earlier (see 5:29), Noah was a farmer. One of his first actions after the flood was to plant a vineyard. Apparently, Noah chose a vineyard over essential grains or fruit trees necessary for his survival. This is meant as a criticism of Noah, as he decided to produce a luxury item. 24 It is possible that he planted a vineyard because he actively wanted to get drunk; after the entire world that he was familiar with had been destroyed, he sought to blur his mind in order to overcome the trauma.

He drank of the wine and became drunk. Since he was drunk and lying on the ground, his clothes, which were presumably flowing robes, fell off him, and he was exposed and left naked inside his tent.

Ham, father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father. Canaan is mentioned here due to his involvement in the affair, as maintained by the Sages. Either Ham was the one who glanced inside the tent and went off and told his brothers, or he performed even worse actions. 25 The phrase “to see nakedness” is similar to the expression “to reveal nakedness,” which appears in the Torah in halakhic contexts not in its literal sense, but as referring to forbidden sexual contact. 26 Accordingly, this might be an indication that Ham or his son Canaan performed some sexual act upon Noah. 27 It is possible that Ham merely saw Noah’s nakedness; however, rather than concealing his father’s shame, he did the opposite and humiliated him, 28 and told his two brothers outside.

Shem and Yefet took the garment, a broad cloth that would cover Noah’s entire body, and they placed it upon both their shoulders. They walked backward, so as not to disgrace their father. Furthermore, they treated him with great modesty: And they covered the nakedness of their father. They faced backward, and they did not see the nakedness of their father.

Noah awoke from his wine, and knew. Noah was not so drunk that when he woke up he had no memory of what had happened in his drunken stupor. While intoxicated, he behaved abnormally and was unaware of his actions, but once he sobered up, he was able to recall what his youngest son, Ham, or his grandson, Canaan, had done to him . 29

He, Noah, said: Cursed be Canaan and his descendants; a slave of slaves, a slave among slaves, an absolute slave in every sense, 30 shall he be to his brothers.

He said: Blessed be the Lord, God of Shem; and Canaan shall be their servant, a servant to the descendants of Shem.

May God expand [ yaft ] and enlarge the borders of the inheritance of Yefet; yaft is an alliterative play on words. And He, God, shall dwell in the tents of Shem; indeed, the Divine Presence rested upon the seed of Abraham, a descendant of Shem. And Canaan shall be their servant, s Canaan shall remain the servant of both Shem and Yefet.

Noah lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years.

All the days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years; and he died. Noah passed away without fathering any more children, perhaps as a result of what Canaan had done to him. The entire future course of history will unfold from Noah’s three sons, who were together with him in the ark.

This is the legacy of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Yefet; sons were born to them after the flood. It stands to reason that they had children beforehand as well, but the majority of their sons were born after the flood.

The sons of Yefet were Gomer, Magog, Madai, Yavan, Tuval, Meshekh, and Tiras. One can do no more than speculate about these names and the ones listed below. For example, the identification of Magog is unclear, despite the fact that he is also mentioned elsewhere: “Direct your attention to Gog, of the land of Magog.” 31 In some cases, the name of the father of a nation is preserved in the name of its country. For example, the locations of Madai, or Medea, and Yavan, Greece, are known. In contrast, Tuval, Meshekh, and Tiras have not been identified. It has been suggested that Tiras is Persia. 32

The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Rifat, and Togarma. In later generations, Ashkenaz was identified, linguistically, with Germany, and Togarma with Turkey, but here too there is no certainty.

And the sons of Yavan were Elisha, which is reminiscent of the ancient name of Greece, Hellas; Tarshish, which should perhaps be identified with Tartessos, a city and state on the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula; 33 Kitim, who were possibly succeeded by the Romans; 34 and Dodanim.

From these the island nations were divided into their lands, each after its language, after its families, in their nations. These are all nations that developed from the descendants of Yefet. These peoples apparently spoke different languages, as there was no territorial continuity between them. They spread over various islands and multiplied there, with each nation going to a different place, as the entire earth was open before them.

The sons of Ham were Kush, Mitzrayim, Put, and Canaan.

The sons of Kush were Seva, Havila, Savta, Raama, and Savtekha; and the sons of Raama were Sheva and Dedan. These are apparently all places in eastern Africa.

Among his other children, Kush begot Nimrod. Since he was such an extraordinary figure, Nimrod is mentioned by himself, not in connection with any particular nation. He began to be a mighty one on the earth. Nimrod was a king who left his mark on the memory of future generations. Several rabbinic legends identify him with Amrafel and other characters. 35 However, the biblical text itself provides comparatively little detail about his life.

He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; Nimrod was considered a hero not only in his immediate surroundings, but also on a global scale. 36 Therefore it is said over the course of the generations, as a kind of popular folk saying: Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before the Lord. When people speak of an outstanding hunter, a great hero, or a mighty king, they compare him to Nimrod.

The beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erekh, Akad, and Kalne, in the land of Shinar. These are cities and regions in Mesopotamia.

From that land around Mesopotamia Ashur emerged. Ashur is mentioned below as one of the sons of Shem. This verse might mean that Ashur withdrew from the tyrannous domain of Nimrod, the mighty hunter who descended from Ham, and went to build and develop cities. 37 According to another explanation, it was Nimrod who went out to Ashur, 38 and he built Nineveh, the largest city in the history of Ashur, the city of Rehovot, Kalah,

and Resen between Nineveh and Kalah; that is the great city. Although one could infer otherwise from the verse, the great city is not Kalah but Nineveh, as indicated in other places. 39 These cities were built by the Assyrians. Apparently Ashur went out toward the east, in the direction of the Tigris River, to the region of the future Assyrian empire.

Mitzrayim begot Ludim, Anamim, Lehavim, Naftuhim,

Patrusim, whose connection to Egypt can also be inferred from the Prophets, 40 and Kasluhim, from which the Philistines emerged, and Kaftorim. Although the Philistines settled in Canaan, they were actually a foreign nation that arrived from overseas. They were part of the group of nations that scholars refer to as the Sea Peoples. Apparently, they came from the area of the Aegean Sea to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, as far as Egypt. Kaftor is probably the island of Crete, which the ancient Egyptians called Keftiu.

Canaan begot Sidon his firstborn, and Het, ho fathered one of the tribes living in the Land of Canaan when the people of Israel arrived there;

and the Yevusite, the Emorite, the Girgashite, also Canaanite tribes,

and the Hivite, the Arkite, the Sinite,

the Arvadite, the Tzemarite, and the Hamatite, six Phoenician-Syrian city-states. And then the families of the Canaanite dispersed.

The border of the Canaanite was from Sidon in the north, as you come on the way leading toward Gerar in the south, until Gaza; as you come toward Sodom and Gomorrah and Adma and Tzevoyim, until Lasha. The descendants of Ham populated a considerable part of the world in several different regions.

These are the sons of Ham, after their families, after their tongues, in their lands, in their nations.

And to Shem, father of all the children of Ever, brother of Yefet, the eldest, children were also born. The verse is ambiguous, as it is unclear whether Shem is the older brother of Yefet, or vice versa. 41 Contrary to the usual order in which the sons of Noah are presented: Shem, Ham, and Yefet, here the order is Yefet, Ham, and Shem. The reason is possibly because the book of Genesis and the rest of the Torah will focus on the descendants of Shem. Therefore, although Shem might not have been the youngest of Noah’s children, his family is presented last in order to connect it to the continuation of the story. 42

The sons of Shem were Elam; Ashur; Arpakhshad, whom some consider the father of the Chaldeans, the Babylonians; and Lud. This name is related to Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, not the Ludim, mentioned above among the children of Mitzrayim. And the last son of Shem is Aram.

The sons of Aram were Utz, who appears in the book of Job and elsewhere, 43 Hul, Geter, and Mash.

And Arpakhshad begot Shela; and Shela begot Ever. This is the family line most significant for the continuation of the story from the children of Shem.

And to Ever were born two sons; the name of the one was Peleg, as in his days the earth was divided [ niflega ], as will be explained at length in the next section; and the name of his brother was Yoktan.

Yoktan begot Almodad, Shelef, Hatzarmavet, Yerah,

Hadoram, Uzal, Dikla,

Oval, Avimael, Sheva, also mentioned in other places in the Bible, 44

Ofir, Havila, and Yovav; all these were sons of Yoktan.

Their dwelling was from Mesha, as you come toward Sefar, the mountain of the east. These tribes settled in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.

These are the sons of Shem, as they gradually spread: After their families, clans and tribes; after their tongues, as each family developed a language of its own; in their lands, since afterward they spread out over a geographical expanse; and after their nations, for each became a nation in its own right.

These are the families of the sons of Noah, in their legacy, in their nations; and from these the nations were dispersed on the earth after the flood, over the course of the generations.

The entire earth was of one language and of common words, similar discourse. People could talk to each other about any topic, as they knew each other and came from comparable backgrounds. They were all descendants of Noah. There were still no major linguistic or cultural differences that could create divisions among the peoples. All of the world’s inhabitants constituted a single unit.

It was as they traveled from some place in the east. This is not referring to all humanity, but to a certain large group of people. And they found a plain. Unlike in modern Hebrew, the word bik’a does not mean a valley, but a plain, a low, level expanse of land. 45 The plain was in the land of Shinar, which lies between the rivers of Babylonia, and is indeed a flat expanse suitable for the events described below; and they settled there.

Each man said to his counterpart: Come, let us make bricks and burn them thoroughly. In the land of Shinar there were not many stones, but there was an abundant supply of clay. Consequently, already in ancient times clay was used for building houses. The brick was for them as stone. The bricks fashioned from blocks of clay were molded into a fixed shape and burned in fire, and thereby turned into a building material that served the same function as stone. And the clay was for them as mortar for sticking the bricks together, and for covering the inner face of the walls. Since they had large amounts of the material, they could build many buildings solely out of such bricks, as was common in most areas of Europe for many years. However, they were not satisfied with the abundance of clay.

They said: Come, let us build a city for ourselves, and a tower with the tower’s top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed abroad upon the face of the entire earth. The tower will be visible from vast distances, and it will serve as our center, so that we will not become scattered throughout the world. We can travel far from the city provided that we can still see the tower and know how to return to it. This will ensure that we will not lose contact with each other.

The Lord came down to see the city, in whose construction all the people were partners, and the tower that the children of man built, not for a practical or technical purpose.

The Lord said: Behold, they are one people, and there is one language for them all. They are united like a nation, a single unit with a shared idea; and this is what they have begun to do. The unity of the people and language has urged on their ambitions. Now nothing of all that they plotted to do will be prevented from them. It is now in their power to do everything. Since the inclination of the heart of man is evil, in such a state of unity, evil is liable to develop in this society without constraints.

Therefore, come, let us descend and muddle their language there, so that one will not understand the language of his counterpart, and we will thereby disrupt their unity.

The Lord dispersed them from there upon the face of the entire earth, and they ceased to build the city. Their languages became confused, and new forms of expression were created. As a result, people could no longer live together, and therefore they became dispersed throughout the world.

Therefore, its name, the city’s name, was called Babel, because the Lord confounded [ balal ] the language of all the earth there; and from there the Lord dispersed them on the face of the entire earth. Mankind developed and settled the entire world.

This is the legacy of Shem. Shem was one hundred years old, and he begot Arpakhshad, two years after the flood.

Shem lived after he begot Arpakhshad five hundred years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Arpakhshad lived thirty-five years, and he begot Shela.

Arpakhshad lived after he begot Shela four hundred and three years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Shela lived thirty years, and he begot Ever.

Shela lived after he begot Ever four hundred and three years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Ever lived thirty-four years, and he begot Peleg.

Ever lived after he begot Peleg four hundred and thirty years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Peleg lived thirty years, and he begot Re’u.

Peleg lived after he begot Re’u two hundred and nine years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Re’u lived thirty-two years, and he begot Serug.

Re’u lived after he begot Peleg two hundred and seven years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Serug lived thirty years, and he begot Nahor.

Serug lived after he begot Nahor two hundred years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Nahor lived twenty-nine years, and he begot Terah.

Nahor lived after he begot Terah one hundred and nineteen years; and he begot sons and daughters.

Terah lived seventy years, and during those years he begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran.

This is the legacy of Terah: Terah begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran, who was likely the youngest son, begot Lot. These characters will be important for the continuation of the story.

Haran died during the lifetime of Terah his father. It was apparently uncommon for a son to pass away during his father’s lifetime. 46 He passed away in the land of his birth, in Ur of the Chaldeans.

Abram and Nahor took wives for themselves; the name of Abram’s wife was Sarai; and the name of Nahor’s wife was Milka, daughter of his brother Haran, who was the father of Milka and the father of Yiska.

Sarai was barren. In contrast to Nahor, who together with Milka gave rise to an entire dynasty, as will be described below (22:20–24), she, Sarai, had no child.

Terah took Abram his son, and Lot, son of Haran, the son of his son, and Sarai, his daughter-in-law, the wife of his son Abram, and they departed with them from Ur of the Chaldeans to go to the land of Canaan. It is not at all clear why they left Ur of the Chaldeans, which is probably located in southern Mesopotamia, modern Iraq, to go to the land of Canaan, which was very far away. Even as the crow flies, this is a huge distance, about 1,000 km. Furthermore, between the two locations lies the Syrian Desert, which can be crossed only in large convoys and after special preparation. In order to reach Canaan, one would have to turn north and come close to the Euphrates River in northern Syria. And they came until Haran, and settled there for the time being, despite the fact that it was not in Canaan.

The days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and Terah died in Haran. It is clear from a comparison of the dates given here and below that Terah’s death at the age of 205 occurred much later than the events described in the next section. However, the Torah supplies this detail here in order to conclude the story of the descendants of Shem. From now on, the focus will be on Abram, the tenth generation from Noah. Abram, together with his descendants, is at the center of the book of Genesis.

The Lord said to Abram: Go you from your land, the geographic location where you were born; and from your birthplace, the place for which you harbor a sense of closeness and belonging; and from your father’s house, and travel to the land, currently unknown to you, that I will show you. You will be told only the general direction you must travel, and you will be informed when you reach your destination.

You embark on this journey as an individual who is merely the head of a family or tribe. Nevertheless, I assure you that in the place where you are going I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you and I will make your name great as you will be renowned, and you shall be a blessing, meaning that people will use you as a paradigm for blessings. When they bless one another, they will say: May you merit to be like Abram.

I will bless those who bless you, and he who curses you I will curse; and all the families of the earth, not only the families of your descendants or your neighbors, shall be blessed in, or through, you. From this point forward, Abram would not live his life for himself alone as a private individual; he would become a symbol and a model for all.

Abram went, as the Lord had spoken to him. He set out on his way and left most of his family, who had also initially planned to go to Canaan, behind in Haran. And Lot, the son of his brother Haran, went with him. Abram was five years and seventy years old upon his departure from Haran.

Abram took Sarai his wife, and Lot, son of his brother, and all their property that they had acquired, and the people that they had acquired in Haran; they departed to go to the land of Canaan; and they came to the land of Canaan. The Torah does not specify the route they took, but it can be assumed that they either traveled through Syria and then along the coast of the Mediterranean, or along the international road that traversed present-day Iraq and Syria to Damascus, and then turned south across the Golan Heights until they crossed over the Jordan River into the land of Canaan via one of several possible crossing points.

Abram passed through the land to the place of Shekhem, the site where the city of Shekhem would later be built, 1 until the plain [ elon ] of Moreh. And the Canaanites were then in the land. This observation, which is important for the continuation of the story, explains that the land to which Abram came was not desolate and empty of inhabitants, as were many regions at the time. Rather, it had been inhabited for many years by the Canaanite people.

The Lord appeared to Abram upon his arrival in Canaan, and said: To your descendants I will give this land. Earlier, when Abram was commanded to travel, he had been given a general blessing. At this point, God promised him a specific gift, that his descendants would inherit the land of Canaan. He built there an altar to the Lord, who had appeared to him. Abram built the first altar to God after His revelation to him. 2 The altar was to serve as a reminder that God had revealed Himself to Abram in this place.

He, Abram, then moved from there to the mountains, east of the city of Beit El, and he pitched his tent there. Beit El was to the west of his place of encampment, and Ai to the east. For many years, Abram and his family were primarily nomadic shepherds who lived in tents. It can be assumed that much of the land was uninhabited at the time, leaving large empty areas suitable for grazing. Abram found pasture for his flock between Beit El and Ai. He also built there an altar to the Lord, and proclaimed the name of the Lord.

Abram journeyed, steadily journeying to the Negev. Since he had not been told where to stop, and as he had not yet found a place where he felt sufficiently comfortable, he left Beit El and continued southward.

There was famine in the land, due to lack of rainfall, which had a negative impact upon both the produce required for human sustenance and the vegetation used for animal pasture. And therefore, Abram descended to Egypt to reside there temporarily, but not to remain there as a permanent resident; 3 as the famine was severe in the land. Egypt, which is dependent upon the Nile rather than on rainfall, was generally immune from the effects of a famine of this kind. 4

It was when he, his camp, 5 drew near to come to Egypt, that he said to Sarai his wife: Behold, I know and have become fully aware now that you are a beautiful woman, and that in addition to your external beauty you also have a strong personality and presence.

It will be, when you come with me to Egypt and the Egyptians see you, they will say: This is his wife. And then they will kill me out of desire for you, and keep you alive. Abram was concerned that he would be attacked, both due to Sarai’s beauty and charming personality, and because of his great wealth. 6

Please say to the residents of Egypt that you are my sister; so that it may be well with me for your sake; as your brother, no one will have cause to harm me. And my soul shall live because of you.

Indeed, Abram’s concern was justified, as it was upon Abram’s arrival in Egypt, the Egyptians saw the woman that she was very fair.

Pharaoh’s officers saw her, and they praised her to Pharaoh king of Egypt, informing him that there was an exceptionally beautiful woman among the visitors who had arrived from distant lands. And the woman was taken to Pharaoh’s house to be one of his wives. It seems that Sarai was not able to object, as she and Abram claimed to be siblings.

And he, Pharaoh, benefited Abram for her sake, as the brother of the woman he sought for himself. He, Abram, acquired, of his own property as well as from all the gifts he received, sheep, oxen, donkeys, slaves, maidservants, female donkeys, and camels.

But in the meantime, the Lord afflicted Pharaoh and his household, his family and those surrounding him, with great afflictions over the matter of Sarai, Abram’s wife.

Pharaoh called Abram, and he said: What is this that you have done to me? Why did you not tell me that she was your wife?

Why did you say: She is my sister? I took her for myself as my wife. Since you claimed to be her brother, I intended to take her as my wife. I acted properly; I did not rape her or take her by force. On the contrary, I treated her with full respect and wished to marry her. It is only now that I have become aware that I took your wife from you. And therefore now, here is your wife. She is too great a temptation for the men who live here. We want neither her nor the troubles and plagues she has brought upon us, so take her and go.

Pharaoh commanded men regarding him to accompany Abram. The escort was provided not merely as a mark of honor; their mission was to compel Abram to leave their place. And so they sent forth him, and his wife, and everything that was his.

Abram ascended northward from Egypt, he, and his wife, and everything that was his, and Lot with him, to the Negev.

And Abram was very wealthy in livestock, in silver, and in gold. Abram was successful in his business dealings and became very wealthy over time. The significance of this detail will become apparent as the narrative progresses.

He went on his journeys from the Negev to Beit El, to the place where his tent had been initially, between Beit El and Ai. He retraced his steps along the same route he had previously taken, in order to reacquaint himself with the inhabitants of those places, or to pay his debts, as explained by the Sages. 7

He came to the place of the altar that he prepared there at first; and again Abram proclaimed there the name of the Lord. Perhaps this means that he called a public assembly, prayed, and gave speeches, with the aim of making the name of God known in the world.

Lot, who went with Abram, also had flocks, and cattle, and tents. Lot left Ur of the Chaldeans as the heir of his father, Haran. Consequently, he had property of his own. Although he traveled alongside his uncle Abram, he was not subservient to him.

And the land could not support them to live together, as their property was substantial, and they were unable to live together. Although at the time the land was relatively uninhabited with large areas available for pasture, the size of flocks that grazed near a settlement was generally in proportion with the size of the settlement. In this situation, when the tribe of nomads arrived with Abram’s large flocks and Lot’s large flocks in addition to those of the locals, there was not enough land available for all of them. However, in addition to these objective limitations, there was another significant factor preventing them from living together.

There was also a quarrel between the herdsmen of Abram’s livestock and the herdsmen of Lot’s livestock. And in this context, the verse notes that the Canaanites and the Perizites then lived in the land. Since Abram did not yet own the land, and other tribes lived there, the quarrel between his herdsmen and Lot’s was potentially dangerous, as the local inhabitants could take advantage of their dispute and attack them.

Abram said to Lot: Please, let there be no quarrel between me and you and between my herdsmen and your herdsmen; for we are brethren. When herdsmen disagree with one another, each group complains to their master, which could eventually lead to a fight between the heads of the two groups, Abram and Lot. Abram did not wish to become embroiled in a conflict with his relative.

Isn’t the whole land before you? Since Abram and Lot were not looking to settle down, but were merely seeking pasture, the entire land was available to them, without restrictions. Please, part from me, and we will head in different directions; we do not need to dwell in the same place. So choose which territory you would like: If you go to the left, I will go to the right; and if you go to the right, I will go left.

At the time, Abram and Lot were situated in the southern Judean hills. Lot raised his eyes, and from that vantage point he saw the expansive view of the valley below, the entire area south of the Jordan River, known as the plain of the Jordan, and saw that it was all watered. This plain was a large, very low area, extremely rich in water. Even nowadays there are fertile areas south of the Dead Sea, where the climate is almost tropical, but before the Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, the climate in the region was different. At that time, the entire area of what is today called the Dead Sea was one large, well-watered vale. Because of the heat and water, it was like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, an area rich in vegetation that does not receive its water from rain but from rivers and irrigation canals. This description applied to the entire plain as, until, you come to the small town of Tzoar.

Lot accepted Abram’s suggestion and chose for himself all the plain of the Jordan, a lush, fertile area large enough for his flocks and herds. Lot journeyed from the east of the place where he and Abram were situated, the side that faced the Dead Sea. 8 And they parted one from another, each following a different path.

Abram lived in the land of Canaan, and Lot lived in, among, and between, the cities of the plain of Jordan, and Lot pitched his tent as far as Sodom. At this stage Lot was not yet a resident of Sodom, but a tent-dwelling shepherd who lived near the city and under its patronage.

At this point, the text notes the moral qualities of the inhabitants of Sodom, among whom Lot had chosen to live: And even at that time the men of Sodom were known to be extremely wicked and sinful to the Lord.

The Lord said to Abram, after Lot parted from him: Raise now your eyes, and look from the place where you are, northward, southward, eastward, and westward;

for all the land that you see, I will give to you, and to your descendants forever.

I will render your descendants numerous like the dust of the earth; so that only if a man could count the dust of the earth, so your descendants shall be counted.

So therefore, arise, walk in the land to its length and to its breadth, as to you I will give it. Even though the land is currently inhabited by others and is not yet in your possession, you can feel as comfortable in it as a landowner strolling through his estate.

Abram did not remain between Beit El and Ai, but he also did not continue wandering. Rather, he turned southward and decided to encamp. He pitched his tent, and came and settled in the plains [ elonei ] of Mamre, which are in Hebron. And he built there an altar to the Lord. While on the move seeking pasture for his flock, Abram spread his faith by constructing altars and publicizing the name of God.

It was in the days of Amrafel king of Shinar, a large kingdom in the area of Babylonia; 9 Ariokh king of Elasar, probably a region northeast of Babylonia; Kedorlaomer king of Elam, also northeast of Babylonia; and Tidal king of Goyim. It is possible that this title means that Tidal reigned over a conglomeration of different tribes or nations [ goyim ], a phenomenon known even in ancient times.

They, those kings, waged war with Bera king of Sodom, and with Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Adma, and Shemever king of Tzevoyim, and the king of Bela, which is the same city that was later called Tzoar.

All these, the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Adma, Tzevoyim and Bela, joined forces at the valley of Sidim, one of the plural forms of sadeh , meaning field, which is in the place 10 now known as the Dead Sea.

For twelve years they served Kedorlaomer, who is singled out probably because he was the strongest member of the coalition of northern kings. It can be assumed that these areas had been conquered by the kings of the north prior to Abram’s arrival in Canaan. And in the thirteenth year, they rebelled. 11 It appears that in addition to the kings of the five cities previously mentioned, the entire region revolted against these foreign rulers with their strange language and culture, who had come from afar with imperialist aspirations. Similarly, many years later, when Nebuchadnezzar took control of the Land of Israel, its various leaders came together and established alliances in order to strengthen one another against the foreign ruler and restore their independence.

And in the fourteenth year, Kedorlaomer and the kings that were with him came to suppress these rebellions, and smote the Refaim, remnants of the Anakim, in Ashterot Karnayim, northern modern-day Jordan, and the Zuzim, another name for Refaim 12 in a place called Ham, and the Eimim, yet another name for Refaim 13 in Shaveh Kiryatayim. Moving from place to place, the kings of the north waged battles against local rulers and defeated them one after the other.

And the Horites, an important nation among the early settlers of Canaan, one of whose tribes lived in their mountain Se’ir, in the land of Edom. 14 Later Esau and his family conquered the area from this tribe and intermingled with them. It seems that the army of the coalition of kings advanced from north to south along the eastern side of the Jordan River. They routed all the kings and tribes they encountered there, until Eil Paran, which is adjacent to, at the edge of, the wilderness of Sinai.

They then turned back, and came to En Mishpat, which is also called Kadesh. After defeating all the rulers on the eastern side of the Jordan River, the kings turned northward again and smote the entire field of the Amalekites, a region in Edom. Although Amalek was not yet born, his descendants would later live there, and the place is described according to its future name. And they also smote the Emorites, who lived in Hatzatzon Tamar, another name for Ein Gedi. 15 The kings of the north traveled from place to place, striking any nation or tribe that stood in their way. Their vast experience and military might undoubtedly gave them a substantial advantage over the local kings of small fiefdoms.

The king of Sodom, the king of Gomorrah, the king of Adma, the king of Tzevoyim, and the king of Bela, which is Tzoar, went out; and they waged a war with them, the kings of the north, in the valley of Sidim, which was a flat area suitable for combat.

They fought with Kedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of Goyim, and Amrafel king of Shinar, and Ariokh king of Elasar; four kings against the five. Although the local kings outnumbered the foreign ones, the actual balance of power dramatically favored the kings of the north, who represented four powerful kingdoms against the rulers of five small cities. It should be noted, however, that as was customary among mighty kings at the time, the king himself did not participate in the battle. He simply sent a spearhead force to quash the rebellion.

The valley of Sidim, albeit fertile, was full of clay pits, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, and they fell there, into the pits; and those who remained, who had not fallen into the pits, fled to the highlands.

They, the four kings from the north, took all the property of Sodom and Gomorrah, Adma, Tzevoyim, and Tzoar. They passed through these cities without meeting any resistance and looted their property, and all their food, which they fed to their armies. And they then turned away and went northward back toward their place of origin.

They took Lot, who was the son of Abram’s brother, and his property and they went; and he lived in Sodom. Since he had not long been associated with residents of these cities, Lot apparently did not want to get involved in the war. He did not even take an interest when the kings of Elam and Shinar fought the nearby king of Sodom. Nevertheless, the soldiers of Kedorlaomer and Amrafel did not care that Lot was a nomad who had also come from the north. As he was living in the place of the rebellion and he owned property, they captured him as well and plundered his possessions.

The survivor, an unidentified individual, had fled from the battlefield and escaped the war, as always happens during military conflicts. According to the Talmud, this refugee was Og king of Bashan. 16 He came and told Abram the Hebrew; and he was dwelling on the plains of Mamre the Emorite, who was the brother of Eshkol, and the brother of Aner, and they were allies of Abram. Abram had developed close relationships with his neighbors, Mamre and his men, who ruled over Hebron or the nearby plains of Mamre. These relations included a mutual pact for protection. The support of his allies apparently strengthened Abram’s resolve.

Abram heard that his brother had been taken captive. The war itself did not interest Abram; it was the capture of Lot that spurred him into action. And he marshaled his retainers, called upon them to leave their homes and join him. At least some of these men had been born in his house and grown up in his camp. 17 The group of soldiers who answered his call amounted to a total of three hundred and eighteen. And Abram pursued the kings’ camp, which had headed north after finishing their business in Sodom, until Dan, a region in northern Canaan also called by a later name reflecting the area’s inhabitants centuries later. 18

On returning from their string of victories, during which they had vanquished the rebels, the kings encamped near Dan. This well-watered region was perfectly suited for a short stay. The kings were likely pleased by their successes and rested complacently. He, Abram, arrayed his men against them at night, he and his servants, and smote them, and pursued them until Hova. The location of Hova is unknown. The only detail the verse provides is that it is a place which is to the left, north, of Damascus.

He returned all the goods. The looted property was there for the taking, as the soldiers who fled for their lives left it behind. And also his brother Lot and his property he returned, and also the women and the people. Plundered goods and captives were part of the victors’ spoils in military campaigns of this type. The kings of the north took men for slaves, and women for all their needs. Abram released all these captives and returned to the Hebron region.

The king of Sodom, who was presumably disheveled and suffering from war wounds, went out to meet him, Abram, perhaps from one of the bitumen pits. The king of Sodom hoped to restore some of his losses through negotiations with Abram, who was now the rising power in the region, after his return from smiting Kedorlaomer and the kings who were with him, to the valley of Shaveh, which is the valley of the king.

And Malkitzedek king of Shalem, another name for Jerusalem, 19 brought out bread and wine, a customary ritual performed as a festive greeting. In this manner Malkitzedek, who was from a different region than the king of Sodom, also sought to honor Abram as a great hero after his victory over the kings of the north. And he, Malkitzedek, was not only a king, but also a priest of God, the Most High. Although he lived among the local pagans, he was one of the few who worshipped the one God, referred to as El, the Most High. El is translated here as simply God. Thus Malkitzedek, who is identified by rabbinic tradition as Shem son of Noah 20 was one of a small group of individuals who did not worship idols, and whose faith was close to that of Abram.

As a priest, he, Malkitzedek blessed him. It is possible that Abram did not wish to be blessed by the king of Sodom, but as Malkitzedek was a priest of God, Abram accepted his blessing. And he said: Blessed is Abram to God, the Most High, master of heaven and earth,

and blessed is God, the Most High, who delivered your enemies into your hand. Malkitzedek formally blessed both Abram for his character, which was blessed by God, and God for providing the victory. He gave him a tenth of everything. Abram treated the priest with respect and bestowed upon him a substantial gift, a tenth of all the property he had restored. 21

After seeing Abram’s considerable generosity in his gift to Malkitzedek, the king of Sodom said to Abram: Give me the people, and take the property for yourself. Let me have the residents of my city, Sodom, as I am responsible for them, and we will waive any claim to the plunder. You can keep any property the kings looted from us, which you rescued from them.

Abram said to the king of Sodom: I have raised my hand to the Lord, God Most High, master of heaven and earth. The raising of one’s hand or hands to the heavens is a gesture indicating an oath. 22

Surely, be it even a thread of a garment or a shoelace, I will not take of anything that is yours, so that you will not say: I made Abram rich. I do not want my wealth to be attributed to you and to the property of Sodom. Consequently, I shall return all the property to you

without regard to me, leave me out of the calculations, do not take me into account (see also 41:16). Only that which the young men have already eaten from the property we have restored, as they needed it for their sustenance on their way back from the north to Jerusalem; this property shall not be restored. And also the portion of the men who went with me, Aner, Eshkol, and Mamre, Abram’s friends and allies, who were probably not among his three hundred and eighteen soldiers. Since they joined with Abram and supported his cause, they deserved a portion of the spoils and Abram did not wish to deprive them of it. Therefore, he said: I insist that they shall take their portion. But as for me, although as the victorious commander I am rightfully entitled to the majority of the spoils, I relinquish my entire portion.

After these matters, after Abram’s war with the great kings of the north, he may have been concerned that the powerful rulers might return to Canaan for another military campaign in order to take revenge. And so the word of the Lord came to Abram in a prophetic vision, saying: Fear not, Abram, I am a shield for you, and I will protect you from all harm. Additionally, your future reward for your deeds is very great.

Abram said: My Lord God, what will You give me? I go childless. You have promised me an exceedingly great reward, but what can I do with it when I have no children? And the steward of my house, the one in charge of all my dealings since I have no son, is Eliezer of, who comes from,23 Damascus.

Abram said: Behold, to me You have not given descendants, and a member of my household is my heir . Since I do not have a son, and my steward will inherit me, this reward has no meaning for me. Although Eliezer is indeed a faithful and decent man, he is not my child.

Behold, the word of the Lord came to him, saying: This man who is the steward of your house shall not be your heir; rather, one who shall emerge from your loins, he shall be your heir.

He took him, or instructed him to go, outside, and said: Look now toward the heavens, and count the stars, and see if you can count them. And after Abram had looked toward the heavens, He said to him: So shall be your descendants; they will be as numerous as the stars.

Although this seemed impossible to Abram, as he and his wife were elderly, he believed in the Lord; and He, God, considered it, Abram’s faith, 24 for him as righteousness, as a correct, upright, and proper act.

He said to him: I am the Lord who took you out of Ur of the Chaldeans, among other reasons, in order to give you this land to inherit it.

He said: My Lord God, how shall I know that I shall inherit it? This statement does not indicate a lack of faith in the fulfillment of God’s promise. However, the promise would come to pass only for Abram’s descendants, none of whom had yet been born, while in the present there was no practical expression of his possession of the land. Hence, Abram requested some sort of assurance or deed that would serve as a confirmation and reinforcement of the covenant.

He said to him: Take Me a triple heifer, and a triple female goat, and a triple ram, and a dove, and a young pigeon.

He took all these for him after they had each been slaughtered, divided them in the middle into approximately equal halves, and placed each half opposite the other, with a gap separating them. But the birds, the dove and young pigeon, 25 he did not divide.

The birds of prey, no specific bird, but birds of prey in general, descended onto the carcasses. These birds represent enemies who attempt to undermine the covenant. And Abram drove them away. He sought to fight these symbolic enemies and expel them. This indicates that the covenant and its fulfillment would encounter many future difficulties and threats, which must be opposed. Some explain that Abram put the pieces back to their initial state and miraculously restored them to life, as a sign of future renewal and resurrection. 26

This episode involved three stages: First came the initial prophetic vision, which Abram apparently experienced at night; this was followed by the preparations for the covenantal ritual and the descent of the birds of prey upon the carcasses, which occurred during the day. Then came the third and final stage, which is described in this verse: It was when the sun was setting; a deep sleep fell upon Abram. This was not an ordinary sleep due to tiredness, but an absolute inability to stay awake, as though an external factor put him in a trance. And behold, together with the deep sleep, a dread, a great darkness, a terrible fear devoid of specific content or meaning, fell upon him.

Here the covenant is formulated as a detailed, defined prophecy. He, God, said to Abram: Know that your descendants shall be strangers in a land that is not theirs. Indeed you will father children and will ultimately inherit the land, but your descendants shall not receive it immediately. The covenant will not be fulfilled in a smooth, straightforward manner. Beforehand, they will be foreigners and nomads like you are. However, in contrast to you, their wanderings will not be in this land that they are destined to inherit, but rather in a foreign place that is not their own. And furthermore, they shall be enslaved to them, the inhabitants of that foreign land; and they shall oppress them for four hundred years. The content of this prophecy fits the dread that Abram felt, but straightaway, God encouraged him with a promise:

And also that nation that they shall serve, I will judge. Your descendants will suffer there for reasons of My own, but the nation that enslaves them will be punished for doing so. And afterwards, when the designated hour arrives, they, your children, will emerge with great property.

But these travails will not affect you personally, and you will not be exiled or suffer, but rather, you shall go to your fathers, you will die and be united with your ancestors in peace, and you shall even be buried at a good old age; you will live a long and peaceful life.

And the fourth generation of your descendants shall return here to inherit the promised land, for the iniquity of the Emorite is not complete until then.

As stated above, the vision started when the sun began to set. It was when the sun had set, and there was extreme darkness, and behold, there was an appearance of a smoking furnace, a thick cloud of smoke, like the smoke that emerges from a furnace, 27 and a flaming torch that passed between those pieces. The smoking furnace and smoking torch represent the Divine Presence passing between the pieces, thereby completing the covenantal ritual.

As befitting a formal covenant, its content is summarized in clear terms. On that day, the Lord established a covenant with Abram, saying: To your descendants I have given this land according to its greatest and fullest scope, from the river of Egypt, a name referring to the eastern branch of the Nile, often called the ravine of Egypt, 28 which serves as the southwestern border of Canaan, until the great river, the Euphrates River, at its northeastern edge.

The promise of the inheritance of the land includes the removal of the nations currently living there: the Kenites, the Kenizzites, and the Kadmonites. The identity of these peoples is unknown, but it can be assumed that they dwelled outside the standard area known as Canaan.

And the Hitites, the Perizites, Canaanite nations; and the Refaim, the Anakim, mentioned above (14:5), and on several occasions in Deuteronomy (2:11, 20–21);

the Emorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Yevusites .

And Sarai, Abram’s wife, bore him no children, despite the fact that they had been married for many years. According to some traditions, Abram was twenty-five years old, or even younger, when he married Sarai. 29 And she had an Egyptian maidservant, and her name was Hagar. Hagar was apparently Sarai’s personal maidservant.

Sarai said to Abram: Please, behold, the Lord has kept me from bearing children; I cannot give birth. Please, consort with my maidservant; perhaps I shall be built and have children through her. Sarai may have felt that she was nearing the end of her years of fertility, and she hoped that this act would cause her to give birth as well. Abram heeded the voice of Sarai. He did not initiate the matter or act for his own reasons, but cooperated with his wife, and complied for her sake alone.

Sarai, Abram’s wife, took Hagar the Egyptian, her maidservant, at the conclusion of ten years of Abram’s residence in the land of Canaan. Sarai’s suggestion came after she and Abram had experienced many long journeys together. Ten years had passed since they had arrived in Canaan and they were still childless. And she gave her to Abram her husband as a wife. Hagar was apparently a full-fledged wife, not merely a maidservant or concubine. However, this change of status caused problems afterwards.

He, Abram, consorted with Hagar, and in a short time she conceived; she saw that she conceived, and her mistress was diminished in her eyes. Hagar saw her pregnancy as a sign of a new status. According to some Sages, she considered her conception an indication of moral superiority over her mistress. 30 However, the change in her attitude toward Sarai can also be explained in a different manner. According to the laws and customs of several nations in ancient times, if a woman married to a man who has more than one wife bears him a child, especially a son, she becomes the primary wife. According to this, Hagar’s pregnancy strengthened her position, and even if she did not openly disparage her mistress, her self-esteem would increase. 31

The situation was very delicate for Sarai, and her emotional response to Hagar’s pregnancy was ambivalent. Sarai said to Abram: The villainy done to me [ h · ] is on you; you have done me wrong. In this context ĥamas does not bear its usual meaning of theft or robbery, but merely indicates an illegal or improper act. Sarai said: Of my own volition, I gave my maidservant into your bosom. And then she saw that she conceived and I was diminished in her eyes. Therefore, the Lord shall judge between me and you. This was not an outright accusation that Abram had harmed her, but a demand that he stand by her side in a more conspicuous manner.

Abram said to Sarai: Behold, your maid is in your hand. Although she is pregnant with my child, I will not defend her; you can take her back as a maidservant. Apparently, Abram had not developed close ties with Hagar, or even if he had, he was willing to give her up for Sarai. Do to her that which is favorable in your eyes. So Sarai treated her harshly. The verse does not specify whether this harassment was mental or physical, if it involved reprimands, curses, the imposition of hard labor, or some other form of persecution. And she, Hagar, fled from her.

The angel of the Lord found her in the wilderness at, or next to, the spring of water on the way to Shur, in the Negev.

He said: Hagar, Sarai’s maidservant. The angel addressed her by name; he knew who she was. From where did you come, and where will you go? She said: From my mistress Sarai I flee.

The angel of the Lord said to her: Return to your mistress, and suffer under her hands. So it has been decreed upon you, and this is the best thing for you.

The angel of the Lord said to her: I will multiply your descendants; the child in your womb will grow into a great nation. And they shall not be counted due to their great number. Hagar’s child would also receive the blessing of fertility and strength granted to Abram.

The angel of the Lord said to her: Behold, as you already know, you are with child, and I am hereby informing you that you shall bear a son, not a daughter. You shall call his name Ishmael, as the Lord has heard [ shama ] your suffering.

He shall be a wild man. He will have a reputation as a wild, uncontrolled, and unsettled figure. His hand shall be against everyone and everyone’s hand against him; he will be continually involved in fights, quarrels, and wars. Perhaps the angel was alluding to the tendency of Ishmael and his descendants to choose the life of the nomad. As is typical of the nomadic existence, they would be drawn to banditry and suffer from endless conflicts. And yet, he shall dwell among all his brethren. He will achieve greatness in the eyes of his brothers and the members of his family.

Realizing that that the angel was no more than a messenger, she called, described, the name of the Lord who spoke to her as: You are the God of my vision, the God who is seen, the God who reveals Himself. It is hard to ascertain much about the character of the quiet Hagar, but as one who came from the house of Abram, she must have absorbed something of his worldview. She was therefore aware that the angel was not a god, but a mouthpiece of God. For she said: Have I seen a revelation here too, after my vision, in addition to those I saw in Abram’s house? Hagar had some prior familiarity with angels, as she had lived in a spiritual environment. She exclaimed in surprise that even here, in a distant wilderness, the God she had seen and known in her home had revealed Himself to her.

Therefore, one 32 called the cistern Be’er Lahai Roi, meaning the well [ be’er ] of the living [ ĥai ] God of my vision [ ro’i ]. Behold, this well is still known, and is mentioned several times later (24:62; 25:11); it is located between Kadesh and Bered, to the south of Canaan.

After returning home as instructed by the angel, Hagar ultimately bore to Abram a son; Abram called the name of his son, whom Hagar bore, Ishmael. It is possible that he had not heard from Hagar that this was the name recommended by the angel, and yet he selected it of his own accord, as the Lord had heard [ shama ] him and his misery as well, and had given him his firstborn son.

And Abram was eighty-six years old, when Hagar bore Ishmael to Abram.

Abram was ninety-nine years old, and the Lord appeared to Abram; He said to him: I am God Almighty. According to the majority of commentaries, this name denotes God’s might and involvement in reality, as the One who destroys and rebuilds new systems in the world. 33 Walk before Me, serve Me, and be wholehearted, perfect. God had already established the Covenant between the Parts with Abram, a covenant that consisted of the eternal acquisition of the land of Canaan, and the continuation of his lineage. The covenant established here was a more personal one.

I shall establish My covenant between Me and you. This covenant was established with Abram as a private individual, and also with each of his descendants personally. And I will multiply you exceedingly.

Abram fell upon his face, in awe, due to the prophecy, and as an expression of his complete submission to whatever God was about to tell him, as the promise would no doubt include an obligation as well. And God spoke with him, saying:

I, My covenant is hereby being established with you, and you shall be the father of a multitude of nations.

This is a new status, and therefore your name shall no longer be called Abram, with its simple meaning of lofty [ ram ] father [ av ]. But rather, your name shall be Abraham; for I have made you the father of a multitude of nations. As part of the covenant, the name given to him by his parents was exchanged for a name chosen by God. The meaning of this name is far more complex, and the verse itself explains it: The father of a multitude [ av hamon ], or the lofty father of a multitude.

God promised Abraham: As the father of a multitude of nations, I will make you exceedingly fruitful, I will make you into the progenitor of various nations, and kings shall emerge from you and rule, each in his own realm.

I will establish My covenant, a private, personal connection between Me and you and your descendants after you throughout their generations for an eternal covenant, to be your God and for your descendants after you. The God and King of the universe, who created the entire universe with all of the planets and stars, now established a personal, family covenant with Abraham and his descendants. This covenant expresses a unique relationship with them, different from His relationship with the rest of humanity, other creatures, and worlds.

As part of this covenant, I will give to you and to your descendants after you the land of your residence, the entire land of Canaan, for an eternal portion. Here God repeats His earlier promise, thereby declaring that this covenant does not replace the Covenant between the Parts as a new spiritual arrangement. Rather, it exists in addition to the previous covenant. And He added an additional promise: I will be their God. From this point onward one finds the phrase, God of Abraham. 34 From now on God is not only the Creator of heaven and earth (14:19, 22), but also our God, the God of Abraham’s descendants.

God said to Abraham: And you, you shall observe My covenant; you, and your descendants after you throughout their generations, as it includes an obligation on your part as well:

This is My covenant that you shall observe, between Me and you and between your descendants after you: Circumcise every male among you.

You shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it, this cutting of the flesh, shall be a mark of a covenant between Me and you. The covenant is the relationship itself, while the circumcision serves as a concrete symbol, an indication of, and reminder about the covenant.

This verse constitutes a normative commandment that forms a binding obligation in Jewish law, similar in style to the many commandments found in the later books of the Torah: And one who is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, whether born in the house, an actual member of the family or anyone else born into the household, even if not a biological descendant of Abraham, or purchased with silver, a slave purchased from any foreigner, who is not of your descendants. Not only must Abraham’s descendants be circumcised, but all males who are his property. The covenant applies to these people from the moment of their birth, although the mark of the covenant is placed on their flesh only on the eighth day.

Circumcise those born in your house, or those purchased with your silver, and the mark of My covenant shall be in your flesh for an eternal covenant throughout the generations.

And the uncircumcised male among your descendants who shall not circumcise the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be excised from his people. This is the most severe of punishments; the soul is cut off and destroyed, a penalty that begins with death and continues in the world of the souls after death. 35 An individual who chooses to remain uncircumcised is deserving of such a severe punishment, since he has breached My covenant, by essentially declaring that he wants no part in it.

God said to Abraham, referring to him by his new name, by which he was to be forever known from that moment forward: Sarai your wife, you shall not call her name Sarai, as Sarah is her name.

I will bless her with various blessings, and I will also give you a son from her; I will bless her, and she too shall become nations [ goyim ]. The word goyim can also mean tribes or leaders (see 20:4, 25:23) . Kings of peoples shall be descended from her.

In the wake of these declarations, Abraham fell upon his face in submission, and he laughed. He said in his heart: Shall a child be born to one who is one hundred years old? Abraham was ninety-nine at the time. If Sarah were to become pregnant immediately, he would be one hundred years old at the time of the child’s birth. And if it is Sarah, shall a ninety-year-old woman give birth? This certainly goes against the laws of nature.

Abraham said to God: If only Ishmael shall live before You. You have promised me miracles, which go against the laws of nature. However, I already have a son, Ishmael. If only he could be considered my son and receive this blessing.

God said: But ndeed, in truth, Sarah your wife shall bear you a son, and you shall call his name Isaac. This name, which means “he will laugh,” is undoubtedly connected to Abraham’s laughter, as well as to that of Sarah, as seen below. And I will keep My covenant with him for an eternal covenant for his descendants after him. He, and not Ishmael, is the son through whom the special covenant will be preserved.

And as for your request with regard to Ishmael, I have heard you, and your wish shall not be entirely unfulfilled. Behold, I have blessed him, I will make him fruitful, and I will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him too into a great nation.

But My covenant I will keep with Isaac. God stressed the difference between Abraham’s two sons. Ishmael, his first son, who was raised in his home and was undoubtedly beloved by his father, was blessed with great fertility and power. However, the unique personal connection embodied by the covenant was reserved for Isaac alone, whom Sarah shall bear to you at the designated time, on the same date, in another year.

He, God, concluded speaking with him, and God ascended from upon Abraham. By speaking to the prophet, God, as it were, descends to him, and when the prophecy concludes, He ascends back to the heights.

Abraham took Ishmael his son, and all those born in his house, and all those purchased with his silver, every male among the people of Abraham’s household, and he circumcised the flesh of their foreskin on that very day, the same day on which he had received God’s command, as God had spoken with him, in spite of his advanced age.

Abraham was ninety-nine years old when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin.

And Ishmael his son was thirteen years old when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin. Although significantly younger than his father, circumcision is difficult at that age as well, for a variety of reasons.

On that very day, Abraham was circumcised, and Ishmael his son.

And all the people of his household, whether born in the house or purchased with silver from a foreigner, were circumcised with him.

Not long after Abraham’s circumcision, the Lord appeared to him in the plains of Mamre, and this occurred when he, Abraham, sat at the entrance of the tent as the day grew hot.

He, Abraham, lifted his eyes and saw, and behold, three men were standing before him. He had not noticed the men approaching, and he was surprised to see them suddenly so near him. He saw them and ran toward them from the entrance of the tent and prostrated himself to the earth. He did not wait for them to reach the tent before greeting them; rather, he approached them warmly and ran to welcome them, thereby showing them great respect.

He said: My Lord, please, if I have found favor in Your eyes, if You wish, please do not depart from upon your servant. Most commentaries maintain that this statement was addressed to God, who had just revealed Himself to Abraham. 1 As Abraham rushed toward the guests, he begged God to wait until he had properly welcomed them.

Abraham turned to the men and said: Please, let a little water be taken, and wash your feet, since you have come from afar, and you certainly need to rest. Washing one’s feet, whether he wore shoes or not, was one of the first steps a traveler took to relax. And recline beneath the tree, in the shade.

I will take a portion of bread, and you shall sustain your heart, meaning to satisfy your hunger, thereafter depart. I have no wish to delay you greatly; after you have rested and eaten a bit, feel free to go on your way. 2 As for this you have happened upon your servant. Since you happened to arrive here, take the opportunity to stay with me. They said courteously: Do so, but only as you have said. Give us some bread and water and let us sit under the tree, as that will be enough for us. 3

Despite his guests’ comment, Abraham acted otherwise, in his dedication and zeal. Abraham hurried to the tent to Sarah and said: Hurry and take three se’a, a significant amount, of high - quality flour, which is flour produced by the coarse grinding of wheat kernels, knead dough, and make cakes, a type of round bread.

Abraham ran to the cattle and took a bullock, tender, young, and good, and gave it to the lad standing there; he commanded the young man to slaughter the calf, skin it, and ready it for the meal. And he, the lad, hurried to prepare it.

He took butter, milk, and the bullock that he prepared and placed it before them, the visitors. In his delight at the opportunity to welcome guests, Abraham himself ran to provide for all their needs. Although his household presumably had bread stored away, he wanted fresh bread for his visitors. The baking of bread and the slaughter of cattle in honor of guests were also ceremonial acts that displayed the host’s enthusiasm and goodwill. He stood over them, by serving them, 4 beneath the tree, and they ate.

They said to him: Where is Sarah, your wife? Although these were ostensibly passersby, they could have known about Abraham. They may have asked about Sarah because it was customary for the mistress of the household to welcome important guests. He said: Behold, she is in the tent. She does not want to interfere with this ceremony.

He, the leader of the guests, said: I will return to you at this time next year, and behold, a son for Sarah, your wife. And Sarah was listening at the entrance of the tent, not far from the tree. And he was behind it. Apparently the man was standing behind the entrance of the tent, 5 facing away, and consequently did not notice that Sarah was seeing and hearing everything.

Abraham and Sarah were old, advanced in years. Abraham was ninety-nine years old, while Sarah was ninety. It had ceased to be with Sarah the manner of women, meaning that she no longer experienced a menstrual cycle.

Therefore, when Sarah, who was alone, heard this, she laughed inside herself silently, saying: After my languishing, shall I have youth? Now that I am old and my menstrual cycle has ceased, shall my body become young again? This process is irreversible, and furthermore, my lord Abraham is old.

The Lord said to Abraham. The speaker was one of the visitors. At this point it became apparent that they were actually angels, messengers of God, who appeared in human form. Angels are sometimes referred to as: The Lord. 6 Alternatively, this was the voice of God Himself, as Abraham was still before the Divine Presence when he tended to his guests. 7 According to this interpretation, when God interrupted the conversation between Abraham and the visitors, He revealed that they were His messengers. Why is it that Sarah laughed, saying: Shall I indeed bear a child, and I grew old? Her laughter indicates a lack of faith in the prophecy.

Is any matter beyond the power of the Lord? At the designated time I will return to you, at this time next year, and Sarah shall have a son. This will indeed occur, and then I will reveal Myself to you again.

Sarah denied it, saying: I did not laugh. Apparently Abraham, who had been standing close to the tent, came inside to speak with her. He reacted differently to the prophecy. Therefore, since God had told him that Sarah had laughed, he asked her why she had done so. Having laughed silently, Sarah denied that she had laughed, for she was afraid to admit to doubting the promise. Her denial demonstrates that she had indeed laughed out of ridicule, rather than joy. He, Abraham or God, 8 said: No, but you did laugh.

The exchange between Abraham and Sarah occurred while the guests were eating. Afterward, the men arose from there and looked out from the hills toward Sodom, in the Jordan Valley far below. And Abraham was walking with them to see them off, as befitting a host.

The Lord said to Himself: 9 Shall I conceal from Abraham that which I am doing?

He is dear to Me, and Abraham shall become a great and mighty nation. He will be a central figure in history, and all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him. They will all consider themselves his successors.

For I love him, so that he shall command his children and his household after him, and they will observe the way of the Lord, to perform righteousness and justice; so that the Lord will bring upon Abraham that which He spoke of him. God’s purpose would be realized through Abraham, as he was chosen to be the father of the nation that would receive numerous blessings and inherit the land of Canaan. Since Canaan was promised to Abraham’s descendants, it was fitting that Abraham be informed of God’s plans for the land.

The Lord said: Because I hear the outcry of Sodom and Gomorrah, and it is great and increasing, and because their sin, evident from the cries of the oppressed individuals there, is very heavy,

I will descend now and see if they have acted in accordance with the outcry that has reached Me. The bare fact that certain people are suffering under the law does not necessarily mean that it is part of an evil regime. At times the suffering is due to problems of inefficiency, or insensitivity, rather than actual malfeasance. If the actions of Sodom are so evil that they justify the outcry, I will bring destruction upon them; and if not, I will know exactly what is happening there.

The men turned from there, after being escorted by Abraham, and went to Sodom; and Abraham was still standing before the Lord. The revelation or conversation between God and Abraham was still in progress. 10 Alternatively, this phrase has the same meaning as: The Lord was still standing before Abraham. 11

After God made His plans for Sodom known to Abraham, Abraham approached, and he said: Will You destroy even the righteous with the wicked?

Perhaps there are fifty righteous people within the city; will You even destroy, and not tolerate the place for the sake of the fifty righteous people who are within it? All populations contain different types of people. There must be some righteous individuals in Sodom.

If so, it is inconceivable for You to do a thing like this, to kill the righteous with the wicked, and that the righteous shall be given the same fate as the wicked. It is inconceivable for You; shall the Judge of all the earth not practice justice?

The Lord said: If I find in Sodom fifty righteous people within the city, I will tolerate the entire place for their sake.

Abraham attempted to bargain. He responded and said: Behold, I have presumed to speak to my Lord, and yet I am mere dust and ashes, a lowly being.

Perhaps the fifty righteous people will lack five, as there might be only forty-five righteous people in Sodom. Will You destroy the entire city for the lack of only five? He, God, said: I will not destroy it, if I find there forty-five.

He continued to speak to Him and said: Perhaps forty righteous people shall be found there. He said: I will not do it, even for the sake of the forty.

He said: Let my Lord please not be incensed, and I will speak. Perhaps thirty shall be found there. He said: I will not do it, if I find thirty there.

He said: Behold, I have presumed to speak to my Lord, perhaps twenty shall be found there. He said: I will not destroy, for the twenty.

He said: Please, let my Lord not be incensed, and I will speak only this time. Perhaps ten shall be found there. He said: I will not destroy, for the ten. en righteous people is apparently the smallest community that can save the city.

The Lord went, He ascended, as it were, when He concluded speaking to Abraham, and Abraham returned to his place, presumably worried and preoccupied by the coming events.

The two angels came to Sodom in the evening. The Sages teach that the third angel did not travel to Sodom, because his mission had been fulfilled in informing Abraham and Sarah of their forthcoming son. The two other angels had tasks to perform in Sodom. And Lot was sitting at the gate of Sodom. Sitting at the gate of a city was typically a sign of high status, as that was where the judges and town elders convened. Lot saw them and rose to meet them, and he prostrated himself with his face to the earth. Lot had either learned the attribute of hospitality from Abraham, or they had both learned it as a family tradition.

He said: Behold now my lords; please turn aside to your servant’s house, stay the night, and wash your feet, and you shall awaken early and go on your way. Lot’s proposal was less generous than that of Abraham, who had included food and drink as well. Nevertheless, Lot did offer them a place to rest. They said: No, for we will stay the night in the street.

He implored them greatly, and eventually they turned aside to him and entered his house; he prepared a feast for them, he baked unleavened bread, and they ate. He gave them food and drink as well, despite the fact that he did not initially refer to provisions.

Before they, the angels, lay down to sleep, the men of the city, the men of Sodom, surrounded the house, from young to old, all the people from every quarter. The mention of the men of Sodom evokes the earlier verse: “The men of Sodom were extremely wicked and sinful to the Lord” (13:13).

They called to Lot, and said to him: Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us, and we will be intimate with them. The residents of the city demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they could exploit them sexually. It was not clear at this point whether their demand was based on sexual desire or to demonstrate their absolute intolerance of guests.14 The only person in Sodom who accepted guests was Lot, who was not a native of the city.

Lot went out to them, the residents of the city, to the entrance of his home, and he closed the door behind him, to prevent them from entering the house.

He said: Please, my brethren, do not do evil. He requested that they forgo their wicked demand.

Here now are my two virgin daughters who have not been intimate with a man; I will now bring them out to you, and you may do to them as is fit in your eyes. Only to these men do nothing, as for this they came under the shelter of my roof.

They said: Move aside. And they said: This one came to reside, and he sits in judgment? You are not a native of the city, but merely a sojourner who came to live here temporarily. How do you presume to pass judgment on our behavior? Now we will treat you worse than them. If you insist on protecting them, we will inflict an even worse punishment on you. It can be inferred from this statement that those surrounding the house were not motivated by sexual desire, but by a wish to inflict pain and humiliation on the guests. They implored the man, Lot, and when that attempt proved unsuccessful, they approached to break the door, which had been locked from the inside.

The men, the angels, who had the appearance of men, extended their hand and brought Lot to them, to the house, and closed the door. With their ability to perform miracles, the angels were able to spirit Lot into the house without letting the mob force its way inside.

They smote the men who were at the entrance of the house with blindness or blurred vision, from small to great, so that they, the residents, were unable to find the entrance. Consequently, the crowd ceased to pose a threat to Lot and his guests.

The angels had yet to perform the tasks for which they were sent: the destruction of Sodom and the rescue of Lot. Although Lot was not altogether righteous, he was saved due to Abraham, his uncle. The men said to Lot: Who else have you here? Do you have any family in the city? A son-in-law, and your sons, and your daughters, and everyone whom you have in the city, remove from the place.

For we are destroying this place, as their outcry, that of the oppressed and ill-treated in the city, has amassed before the Lord, and the Lord sent us to destroy it.

Lot came out, and spoke to his sons-in-law, who had betrothed his daughters. Lot told his sons-in-law, who were certainly natives of the city, what was about to happen. And he said: Arise, depart from this place, for the Lord is destroying the city. But he seemed as one who jests in the eyes of his sons-in-law. They did not believe him and ignored his warning.

About when the dawn broke, the angels urged Lot, saying: Arise; take your wife and your two daughters who are present, lest you too be destroyed in the iniquity of the city. There is nothing we can do to save the rest of your family, whom you were unable to convince to flee. The time has arrived to leave the city.

Perhaps Lot himself did not completely believe the angels’ warning. Their power to strike the residents of the city with blindness would certainly have impressed him, but he may still not not have entirely placed his confidence in them, and he may also have harbored concern about his uncertain future outside the city. Therefore, he hesitated. And the men forcefully grasped his hand, the hand of his wife, and the hand of his two daughters who were in the house. All this was performed out of the compassion of the Lord for him; although he was unworthy of being saved, it was the angels’ task to save him, even against his will. They took him out and placed him outside the city. They led him by foot to the entrance to the city or supernaturally transported him to the city’s outskirts.

It was when they took them out that he, one of the angels, said: Flee for your life; do not look behind you and do not stay in the entire plain of the Jordan, which encircled Sodom. Flee to the highlands surrounding the plain, lest you be destroyed.

Lot said to them: Please, no, my lords.

Please, behold, your servant has found favor in your eyes, and you have increased your kindness that you have done with me to save my life. But I will not be able to flee to the highlands; it is too far, the climb is exhausting and dangerous, and I am too old for such a challenging expedition. But I cannot remain on the plain either, lest the evil overtake me and I die.

Here now, this city is near to flee there, and it is small; please, I will flee there. Although it is a city with its own king (see 14:2), is it not small enough to escape destruction, and perhaps there my life will be saved?

He, the angel, said to him: Behold, not only have I taken you out of the city, but I have granted your request for this matter as well, not to overturn the city of which you spoke. I will destroy only the large cities on the plain, Sodom, Gomorrah, Adma, and Tzevoyim, but I will leave standing the city to which you referred.

Hurry and flee there, as I will not be able to do anything until your arrival there. Since an angel is only a messenger of God, he has no choice but to obey the instructions given to him. These angels had been directed to destroy the sinful cities and to save Lot. They could not strike the cities if that would put Lot in danger. The Torah notes: Therefore, because the city was small [ mitz’ar ], he called the name of the city Tzoar. This became an additional name of the city.

Lot and his family left at daybreak. A short while later, the sun rose upon the earth, and Lot came to Tzoar.

The Lord rained brimstone and fire upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah, as well as on Adma and Tzevoyim, from the Lord from the heavens.

Furthermore, He overturned those cities, the entire plain, all the inhabitants of the cities, and the vegetation of the earth. Apart from the fire and brimstone, there was a massive earthquake that overturned the entire area, until nothing remained as it had been.

His, Lot’s, wife looked behind him, despite the angel’s warning. She had been rescued due to her relationship with Lot, but she may have been a native of Sodom, and apparently still felt connected to the city. Whether out of curiosity or emotional distress, she turned to look at her city, and she became a pillar of salt. This could be meant literally or metaphorically that she froze in place and died.

Abraham arose early in the morning to the place where he stood before the Lord.

He looked over Sodom and Gomorrah, and over all the land of the plain of the Jordan, the region that is currently the Dead Sea. And he saw that behold, the smoke of the earth rose thickly and in abundance, like the smoke of a kiln. In addition to the destruction wreaked by the earthquake, the entire plain was burnt, leaving no trace of anything that had stood there.

The Torah summarizes the previous events: It was when God destroyed the cities of the plain, and God remembered Abraham. And due to Abraham’s merit, He sent Lot from the midst of the upheaval, as He overturned the cities in which Lot lived.

Lot ascended from Tzoar and lived in the hills, and his two daughters with him, because he feared to live in Tzoar. Lot had stayed in Tzoar on the first night, but he was afraid to remain there, as it was one of the cities of the plain that had originally been intended for punishment. As Lot suspected that its destruction had been merely delayed due to his presence and request, he felt anxious. Therefore, he eventually ascended into the mountains, as the angel had originally instructed him. And he lived in a cave, he and his two daughters.

Lot and his two daughters stayed alone in the cave, surrounded by total desolation. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah presumably prevented any traveler from approaching the area. Lot’s daughters did not know that the destruction was limited to Sodom and its environs. They assumed that a global catastrophe like the flood had occurred and that they were the only survivors. As stated earlier (verse 8), both were young and unmarried. Therefore, the elder said to the younger: Our father is old; we cannot expect that he will have use of his faculties for long. And there is no man on the earth aside from him to consort with us in the way of the world. The continuation of the human race depends on us. Although we are his daughters, we must act like the family of Adam, the first man, and procreate from family members, in order to prevent the extinction of humanity.

Let us give our father wine to drink so that he will be drunk, and we will lie with him, and we will give life to offspring from our father. Lot’s daughters chose to intoxicate their father rather than plan with him, whether out of concern that he would react negatively or because they were embarrassed to discuss the idea with him.

They gave their father wine to drink that night. The wine was likely brought from Tzoar, along with the other provisions they had taken for their survival. The elder came and lay with her father, and in his drunken state, he did not know when she lay or when she arose.

It was the next day, and the elder said to the younger: Behold, I lay last night with my father. Since I have already broken the taboo, let us give him wine to drink tonight as well, and you come and lie with him; and we will give life to offspring from our father. We cannot know yet if I have become pregnant. Since we must guarantee the survival of the human race, we will improve our chances of success if you lie with him as well.

They gave their father wine to drink that night as well. The younger arose and lay with him, and he did not know when she lay or when she arose.

Lot’s two daughters conceived from their father.

The elder gave birth to a son and called his name Moav; he is the ancestor of the Moavites to this day. The name Moav can be understood to mean: From father [ me’av ].

The younger too gave birth to a son, and called his name Ben Ami, which has a similar meaning, as the word ami can denote a close familial relationship (see, e.g., 49:29). Nevertheless, this was a more subtle reference to his sordid origins than Moav. He is the ancestor of the descendants of Amon to this day.

Abraham journeyed from there to the land of the south; he lived between Kadesh and Shur, in the Negev; and he resided in Gerar, one of the cities of the Philistines.

Abraham said of Sarah his wife: She is my sister. Although they arrived in a location that was smaller and less powerful than Egypt, nevertheless, Abraham adopted the same precautions he had used there. Avimelekh king of Gerar sent messengers and took Sarah, either for personal reasons or due to political and economic considerations.

Unlike in Egypt, God came to Avimelekh in a dream at night, and He said to him: Behold, you shall die, because of the woman that you have taken, and she is married to a husband.

Avimelekh had not approached her; even before God spoke to him, he had not engaged in sexual relations with Sarah. He said, either in the dream or while awake: Lord, will You kill me when I am a nation, a king, who is also righteous? Avimelekh pleaded for his life: Why must I die? I have done no wrong.

Did he, Abraham, not say to me: She is my sister? And she, Sarah, she too as much as said: He is my brother. In the innocence of my heart and in the cleanliness of my hands I did this.

God said to him in the dream: I also knew that in the innocence of your heart you did this, and I also prevented you from sinning to Me. Although you were able to take her, I kept you from sinning further. Therefore, after you took her I did not allow you to touch her.

Now, restore the man’s wife, as he is a prophet, and he shall pray for you, and you will live. The fact that Abraham is a prophet is not the reason Avimelekh must return his wife. Rather, God is saying that as Abraham is a prophet and a holy individual, his prayer has the power to ensure that Avimelekh will be spared. Therefore, the king would be advised not merely to return Sarah, but to ask Abraham to pray for him. And if you do not restore her, know that you shall die, you and all that is yours.

Avimelekh rose early in the morning, and he called all his servants and spoke all these matters in their ears; and the men were very frightened, due to the threat to their king’s life.

Avimelekh called Abraham, and said to him: What have you done to us, and what have I sinned to you, that you have brought upon me and upon my kingdom a great sin? Deeds that may not be done you have done to me. Abraham did not answer Avimelekh’s accusation, as he himself was not to blame. While Abraham had omitted some pertinent details, Avimelekh had taken Sarah without Abraham’s express permission.

When Abraham did not respond to his accusation, Avimelekh sought to determine his motive. Avimelekh said to Abraham: What did you see that you did this thing?

Abraham said: Because I said: Surely there is no fear of God in this place. Although I am unfamiliar with this area, the impression I received is that there is no fear of God. In such an environment no one heeds moral norms in the fundamental areas of murder and forbidden sexual relationships. And I thought: If I tell the truth about Sarah, they will kill me over the matter of my wife.

Also, I did not actually lie. Indeed, she is my sister, the daughter of my father, but she is not the daughter of my mother. Apparently, even then it was considered taboo to marry a maternal sister. 15 And she became my wife.

It was, when God caused me to wander from my father’s house and live as a nomad, that I said to her: This is your kindness that you shall perform for me; at every place that we shall come, say of me: He is my brother.

Avimelekh took flocks and cattle, and slaves and maidservants, and he gave them to Abraham as a gift, and he restored his wife Sarah to him.

Avimelekh said: Behold, my land is before you: Live where it is fit in your eyes. I will not hold this episode against you, and I grant you permission to stay here if you wish.

And to Sarah he said: The appearance of having left your husband’s house and stayed with another man could cause a scandal. Therefore, behold, I have given your brother Abraham sheep, cattle, slaves, and maidservants worth a large sum, a thousand pieces of silver ; 16 behold, it, the gift, is for you a covering of the eyes for all who are with you, and it will cover the eyes of all who would look at you in a disparaging manner and malign you, and for all people it is proven by the compensation that you have behaved honorably and need not be ashamed.

Abraham prayed to God, as God had predicted to Avimelekh; and God healed Avimelekh, his wife, and his maidservants, and they bore children.

The Torah explains why Avimelekh submitted so quickly to God’s command: For the Lord had obstructed all wombs of the house of Avimelekh, over the matter of Sarah, Abraham’s wife. During the time that Sarah was in Avimelekh’s house, no children were born to the household, neither to Avimelekh’s wives nor to his maidservants. Avimelekh feared that this condition would become even more serious. Once Abraham prayed for him, this affliction in Avimelekh’s household abated.

The Lord remembered [ pakad ] Sarah. The term pakad refers to remembering to fulfill a need or a lack. 17 The Lord blessed her with a pregnancy as He had said, and the Lord did to Sarah as He had spoken.

Sarah conceived, and bore Abraham a son in his old age, at the designated time that God had told him, one year after the angels had visited his tent.

Abraham called the name of his son that was born to him, whom Sarah bore to him, Isaac, as God had commanded. Isaac, whose name means: He will laugh, was born in the wake of the laughter of both Abraham (17:17) and Sarah (18:12). Moreover, his name alludes both to his character and to later events in his life. 18

Abraham circumcised his son Isaac when he was eight days old, as God had commanded him above (17:12). Isaac was the first child of Abraham to be born after God’s commandment with regard to circumcision, and was therefore the first to be circumcised on the eighth day.

Abraham was one hundred years old when his son Isaac was born to him.

Sarah said: God has made laughter for me. This is a strange and happy occurrence, prompting laughter. Everyone who hears will laugh for me. The unlikely event of this birth and the gladness it brings me will cause everyone who hears of it to share in my joy.

She said: Who would have said of Abraham that Sarah would nurse children, as has happened? I have been married to Abraham for many years without children, and now the impossible has occurred, as I bore him a son for his old age.

The child grew and was weaned. It is unclear when this occurred, as nursing sometimes continued until age three. Abraham made a great feast on the day Isaac was weaned, in accordance with the prevalent custom to celebrate a child’s weaning. 19

Sarah saw Ishmael, the son of Hagar the Egyptian, whom she, Hagar, bore to Abraham, playing.

She said to Abraham: Banish this maidservant and her son. By rights you should banish only the son, but as he is young and needs his mother, you must send her away as well. For the son of this maidservant shall not inherit with my son, with Isaac.

The matter was very grave in the eyes of Abraham, on account of his son. Abraham was more pained about banishing Ishmael than about banishing Hagar. He may also have better understood Sarah’s discomfort with Hagar’s presence than he did her objection to Ishmael.

But God said to Abraham: Let it not be grave in your eyes about the lad and about your maidservant. Significantly, God included Hagar in this statement. Everything that Sarah says to you, heed her voice. Whether or not you understand and identify with Sarah’s demand, it is My will that you should listen to her, for it is through Isaac that descendants will be accounted to you. You have a son from Sarah, and even if you have other biological children, only Isaac will be your heir and successor, and only his descendants will be attributed to you.

Also the son of the maidservant I will make a nation. He is not simply being discarded, because he is your descendant, and your merit stands in his favor. He too will be the father of a great people, although they will not be known as Abraham’s unique descendants.

Abraham rose early in the morning; he took bread and a skin of water and gave it to Hagar, placed it on her shoulder, and gave her 20 the child , and sent her away. She went and wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba. Although she may have planned on traveling to her native Egypt, in any event, she wandered in the wilderness instead of reaching any place of human habitation.

Eventually, the water in the skin Abraham had given her was finished, and she cast the child into the shade beneath one of the bushes in the desert. This description supports the opinion that Ishmael was sick, as perhaps he had fainted and was unable to walk.

She went and sat herself down at a far distance, approximately a bowshot removed. In biblical times, an arrow could be shot approximately 170 m. 21 She was at a distance from her son but presumably could still see him and hear his cries. For she said: I do not want to sit close to him, so that I will not see the death of the child. She sat at a distance, raised her voice, and wept.

God heard the voice of the lad; the angel of God called to Hagar from the heavens and said to her: What is it with you, Hagar? Fear not, as God has heard the voice of the lad as he is there. His cries and needs are heard above. In all places and whatever the circumstances, God protects Ishmael.

Rise, lift up the lad, since he is too weak to walk on his own, and hold him with your hand to support him, for I will make of him a great nation. He will not die yet, as a mighty nation will descend from him.

God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; she went and filled the skin with water, and gave the lad to drink. This drink revived the dehydrated Ishmael.

God was with the lad, and he grew; he lived in the wilderness and became an archer, skilled at hunting with bow and arrows.

He lived in the wilderness of Paran, and his mother took him a wife from the land of Egypt, her native land. Here, in the wilderness of Paran, the career of Ishmael began, and he ultimately became the patriarch of a great nation.

It was at that time, after Abraham had fathered a son, that Avimelekh and Pikhol, the captain of his guard, said to Abraham, saying: Although you are not the ruler of a great kingdom, we see that God is with you in all that you do. They began this political discussion by invoking God.

Now take an oath to me here by God that you shall not deceive or betray me, or my son, or my son’s son; like the kindness that I have done with you in allowing you to live within my territory and in taking a certain responsibility for your welfare, do with me personally, and also with the land in which you resided.

Abraham said: I will agree to take an oath and pledge to be trustworthy in my relations with your people and country.

On this same occasion, Abraham reprimanded Avimelekh with regard to the well of water that Avimelekh’s servants had stolen. Abraham had previously dug a well, which Avimelekh’s servants then took by force. Abraham had not complained at that point, but once he was negotiating a covenant with Avimelekh, he decided to raise the matter. Since Avimelekh had publicly declared that he had a positive relationship with Abraham and had treated him with kindness, Abraham found it appropriate to note the unresolved issues in their relationship and try to reconcile them.

Avimelekh said: I do not know who did this thing; and you also did not tell me it had happened, nor did I hear of it, other than today. I can take no responsibility for the incident. I did not send those people, and I never heard anything about this incident until now. By this statement, Avimelekh conceded that the well belonged to Abraham.

Abraham took flocks and cattle and gave them to Avimelekh as a gift and as his contribution to the feast prepared there. And the two of them established a covenant. The covenant may have been formalized by a ceremony in which the animals were cut in half. 22

Abraham placed, set aside, seven ewes of the flock he had given as a gift by themselves.

Avimelekh said to Abraham: What are these seven ewes that you have placed by themselves? If you intend to give them to me or to contribute them to the feast, why did you separate them from the rest of the flock?

He, Abraham, said: Because you shall take seven ewes from me, so that it will be for me as a testament, that I dug this well. These seven sheep will symbolize your consent that the well belongs to me, like an addendum to our covenant. By accepting them you give your assurance that your servants will not steal the well from me again.

Therefore he called that place Beersheba, because both of them took an oath there. The name evokes both the oath [ shevua ] about the well [ be’er ] and the number seven [ sheva ].

They established a covenant in Beersheba. Then Avimelekh and Pikhol, the captain of his guard, arose, and they returned to the land of the Philistines, from where they had traveled to the place of Abraham’s encampment.

He, Abraham, planted a tamarisk in Beersheba, and he proclaimed there the name of the Lord, God of the Universe. This was Abraham’s practice throughout his travels. Wherever he encamped, he would build an altar, teach the residents of that place about God, and make His name known to them.

Abraham did not return immediately to Hebron, but resided in the land of the Philistines for many days.

It was not long after these previous matters; 23 God tested Abraham. This is the first event explicitly described as a test planned by God. And God said to him: Abraham; and he said: Here I am. Abraham’s response indicates not only that he has heard God’s call but that he is ready to receive His command.

He, God, said: Take now your son, your only one, as Abraham’s other son had been banished and was not considered an heir, whom you love: Isaac. This long string of descriptions serves to underscore the monumental demand God is about to make. And go you to the land of Moriah, traditionally associated with the area of Jerusalem, and offer him up there as a burnt offering upon one of the mountains that I will tell you.

Once again, Abraham wasted no time. Since he had received the command only at night or just before, he awoke early in the morning and saddled his donkey, to carry the items he required for the journey. He took two of his young men with him, and Isaac his son; and he cleaved the wood for the burnt offering, as he could not know if he would find more wood on the way. 24 He arose, and he went, striding purposefully to the place that God told him, as he knew where it was.

Abraham started his journey in Beersheba, 25 many hours from Jerusalem, on foot. Since he and Isaac had only one donkey and were traveling together, the journey took three days. On the third day Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw the place from afar.

Abraham said to his young men: Stay here with the donkey and wait for me, and I and the lad will go there; we will prostrate ourselves, pray or sacrifice an offering, and will return to you. Abraham does not reveal his intention to sacrifice his son. Instead, he gives his attendants the impression that he and Isaac will sacrifice an offering together and then return.

Abraham took the wood of the burnt offering and placed it upon Isaac his son. By carrying the wood, Isaac was already participating in the sacrifice. He, Abraham, took in his hand the fire, the kindling, and the knife, and the two of them went together.

Now that they were alone Isaac said to Abraham his father; he said: My father. He, Abraham, said to him, as he had responded earlier to God: Here I am, my son, ready and attentive. Abraham has not become any less fatherly toward Isaac, and he listens with a loving ear, despite the knowledge that he must sacrifice him. He, Isaac, said: Here are the fire and the wood, but if our intention is to sacrifice an animal, where is the lamb for a burnt offering?

Abraham said, in a poignant response: God will Himself see to the lamb for a burnt offering, my son. At this point, Isaac surely began to ponder: What if we do not find a lamb? The juxtaposition of “burnt offering” and “my son” would have rung in his ears, as Isaac was no doubt aware of the practice of human sacrifice among the surrounding peoples. Nevertheless, the verse repeats the phrase indicating their solidarity: And the two of them went together. Earlier, Abraham was deeply troubled and Isaac was entirely innocent, and they went together. Now Isaac has heard Abraham’s frightening words, but he continues to walk with his father, without any attempt to escape.

They came to the place that God had told him; Abraham built the altar there, arranged the wood, and bound the hands and feet of Isaac his son to prevent him from moving, and he placed him on the altar upon the wood. He completed his preparation of Isaac as an offering.

Abraham raised his hand and took the knife to slaughter his son.

The angel of the Lord called to him from the heavens. Since the angel is a messenger of God, its statement is the word of God. And he said: Abraham, Abraham. Again, he, Abraham, said: Here I am, always ready to be commanded, even in the midst of such a superhuman effort as this.

He said: Do not raise your hand to the lad, and do not do anything to him; for now I know that you are God-fearing, and you did not withhold your son, your only one, from Me.

Abraham lifted his eyes and saw that behold, there was a ram after it had been caught in the thicket by its horns. Rams, even those with long horns, are typically able to avoid being caught in thickets. Furthermore, this ram was in unusually close proximity to humans. Abraham immediately understood that this was no coincidence, but a sign. 26 Therefore, Abraham went, took the ram, and offered it up as a burnt offering in place of his son.

Abraham called the name of that place where this occurred: The Lord will see, as it is said to this day with regard to that mountain: On the mount where the Lord will be seen.

The angel of the Lord called to Abraham a second time from the heavens.

He said: By Myself I have taken an oath – the utterance of the Lord – for because you have done this thing, and did not withhold your son, your only one,

for that I will bless you and multiply your descendants as the stars of the heavens and as the sand that is upon the seashore, and your descendants shall inherit the gate of their enemies;

and all the nations of the earth shall bless themselves by your descendants, meaning that they will bless each other with the prayer that they be like your descendants, since you heeded My voice.

Abraham returned to his young men, and they arose and went together to Beersheba; and Abraham lived for some years more in Beersheba.

It was after these matters that it was told to Abraham, saying: Behold, Milka, wife of Nahor, she too has borne children to your brother Nahor. This particular form of the word “after” indicates that considerable time had passed between the two events. 27 The news reached Abraham from Haran, on the border of modern-day Turkey and Syria, where Nahor and his family lived.

Nahor fathered several sons: Utz, with a traditional Aramaic name, who was his firstborn, Buz his brother, and Kemuel, father of Aram, who was apparently an important Aramean leader. Apart from Abraham, Terah’s descendants became Arameans.

Kesed, Hazo, Pildash, Yidlaf, and Betuel, Nahor’s youngest son.

Betuel begot Rebecca. He had other children as well, and the Torah later introduces his son Laban, who was older than Rebecca. Nevertheless, in this context the birth of Rebecca is of more significance, as she will marry Isaac. 28 At this point Abraham knew that there was at least one woman in the family eligible for Isaac, and he may have had Rebecca in mind when he later sent a messenger to Haran to seek a wife for his son (chap. 24). These eight sons Milka bore to Nahor, Abraham’s brother.

And his, Nahor’s, concubine, and her name was Re’uma, she too bore sons: Tevah, Gaham, Tahash, and Maakha.

The lifetime of Sarah was one hundred and twenty-seven years, the years of the life of Sarah. A literal rendition of the verse would read: The lifetime of Sarah was one hundred years and twenty years, and seven years, the years of the life of Sarah. Some commentaries explain that the repetition of “years” in the verse teaches that at each stage of her life, whether she was seven, twenty-seven, or one hundred, Sarah exhibited the same good qualities.1 The concluding phrase, “the years of the life of Sarah,” indicates that in each of those stages she lived a full and complete life.

Sarah died in Kiryat Arba, which is Hebron, in the land of Canaan; Abraham came from Beersheba, where he lived before and after the binding of Isaac, to lament Sarah, as is customary when mourning someone, and to weep and move others to weep for her.

After mourning for Sarah, her husband must find a place to bury her. Abraham arose from before his dead, and he spoke to the children of Het, their leaders and elders, who sat at the entrance to the city of Hebron, saying:

Although I am a foreigner here, my family and I have lived here for many years. And in addition, I am a resident alien with you: I do not have rights in this place, but I am an old acquaintance of yours. Therefore, give me a portion of your land that can serve as a burial portion with you, and I will bury my dead from before me.

The children of Het answered Abraham, saying to him. It is possible that they discussed the matter among themselves first, before providing him with an official response.

Hear us, my lord: Although you say that you are a foreigner and a resident alien, you are not merely an ordinary person. Rather, you are a prince of God in our midst, as your status is greater than that of the head of a small tribe. Therefore, in the choicest of our graves bury your dead; none of us shall withhold his grave from you, from burying your dead, as you may choose a burial plot in any place that you desire. The local residents thereby declared that they have given Abraham informal rights to their land.

Abraham arose, and prostrated himself, or bowed his head, 2 in a formal gesture of respect and gratitude, before the people of the land, before the children of Het.

Despite his expression of gratitude, Abraham did not wish to bury his wife in the land of the children of Het. Rather, he wanted to purchase a separate piece of property. He spoke with them, saying: If you are truly willing to fulfill my request and bury my dead from before me, heed me, and intercede for me with a specific individual, Efron son of Tzohar,

that he will give me the Cave of Makhpela, which was so called because it is a double [ kefula ] cave, that is his, which is at the edge of his field; he shall give it to me for a full price in your midst for a burial portion. Despite their offer to allow him to use any property he chose, Abraham insisted on purchasing a plot at full price, as he wanted it to be property held by the family in perpetuity. With regard to the retention of an ancestral inheritance, see, e.g., I Kings 21:1–3 and Nehemiah 2:2–5.

And Efron, who was not necessarily an important member of the city, was living at that time among the children of Het; and Efron the Hitite answered Abraham in hearing of the children of Het, of all those coming to his city gate. He too conducted himself ceremoniously, as he approached the city council and issued a public declaration, saying:

No, my lord, you offered to purchase a portion of my field, but I cannot accept that proposal. Rather, heed me: The entire field I have given to you , 3 and the cave that is in it, I have given it to you; in the eyes of my people, who are all listening to my declaration, I have given it to you and will not deter you from taking it. I will clear the land for such a distinguished man as yourself, and the entire plot will belong to you; go bury your dead.

Abraham prostrated himself a second time before the people of the land, thereby formally expressing his gratitude for Efron’s generous offer.

Despite the offer, he, Abraham, spoke to Efron in the hearing of the people of the land, saying: Rather, if only you will heed me, when you originally said: No, my lord, heed me, I indeed listened to you. Now it is my turn to request that you listen to me: I have given you, that is, I am giving you, the silver for the field in order to purchase it; please take it from me, and I will bury my dead there.

Until this point, Efron had spoken generally about the matter; now he must set a price. Therefore, Efron responded to Abraham, saying to him:

My lord, heed me. This land is worth four hundred shekels of silver, between me and you what is it? We are close friends, and consequently such a small plot of land should not concern us; and therefore bury your dead, and let us not suffer delays over the price.